This  book 


ORAL    ENGLISH 


DIRECTIONS  AND  EXERCISES  FOR  PLANNING 
AND  DELIVERING  THE  COMMON  KINDS 
OF  TALKS,  TOGETHER  WITH  GUID- 
ANCE FOR  DEBATING  AND  PAR- 
LIAMENTARY   PRACTICE 


BY 


JOHN  M.  BREWER 

INSTRUCTOR   IN"   EDUCATION,   HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 

FORMERLY  TEACHER   IN    HIGH    AND    INTERMEDIATE   SCHOOLS 

I.OS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON     •    NEW   YORK     •    CHICAGO     •     LONDON 
ATLANTA     •    DALLAS     •    COLUMBUS    •    SAN   FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1916,  BY  JOHN  M.  BREWER 
ALL  RIGHTS   RESERVED 

3'7-2 


tElje    gtftengum    JPregg 

CINN  AND  COMPANY-  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


TO 

E.  G.  B. 


4  ?_  0  3  (o 


PREFACE 

Oral  English  is  taking  its  place  in  schools  and  colleges  as  a 
subject  independent  both  of  literature  and  of  written  composition. 
Moreover,  the  study  itself  is  changing,  passing  from  practice  in 
imitation  of  lofty  masterpieces,  with  the  elocutionary  style,  to 
direct,  effective  speaking  without  unnecessar)^  adornment.  Many 
authors  still  make  oral  work  subsidiary  to  written  composition, 
whereas  speaking  should  be  primary.  Others  plan  to  drill  stu- 
dents chiefly  in  vocal  exercises,  giving  most  of  the  time  to  prepa- 
ration for  talking  and  little  to  the  talking  itself.  Many  emphasize 
reproduction  and  neglect  production.  Some  ground  their  exercises 
on  the  theory'  of  general  discipline,  and  neglect  considerations  of 
immediate  utility  and  vocational  needs.  Few  give  the  students  the 
point  of  view  of  the  modern,  active  man  or  woman  of  the  world, 
who  must  talk  a  great  deal  and  wishes  to  do  it  with  businesslike 
simplicity  and  brevity. 

To  meet  these  needs  this  textbook  has  been  prepared.  It  aims 
to  furnish  the  student  brief  directions,  detailed  exercises,  and  sug- 
gestive topics  of  everyday  interest  and  utility  —  the  best  that  have 
arisen  during  several  years  of  fortunate  experience  in  a  school  which 
pioneered  in  developing  courses  in  Oral  English.  The  student  is 
assigned  a  series  of  problems,  each  of  which  he  must  think  out 
and  then  solve  by  giving  a  talk  before  the  class.  There  is  little 
provision  for  talking  al'ouf  talking,  but  there  is  omnipresent  pro- 
vision for  doing-  in  a  thought-directed  way  the  things  that  students 
are  already  trying —  explaining,  telling,  and  arguing. 

The  table  of  contents  will  show  that  the  classification  and 
arrangement  are  based  on  pragmatic  and  educational  rather  than 
on  philological  grounds.     Part    I  —  the  first  twelve  chapters — ■ 


VI  PREFACE 

includes  most  if  not  all  of  the  common  kinds  of  talks,  together 
with  four  chapters  specifically  devoted  to  the  manner  of  speaking. 
Part  II  takes  up  two  special  subjects :  debating  and  parliamen- 
tary law ;  and  the  appendixes  contain  reference  tables,  lists  of 
topics,  and  some  miscellaneous  exercises  valuable  to  students 
of  all  ages. 

The  text  may  be  followed  consecutively,  or  the  work  may  be 
varied  at  any  time  by  allowing  free  choice  and  experimentation,  by 
using  the  parliamentary  organization,  or  by  performing  the  exercises 
of  Chapter  XII. 

Oral  English  is  the  only  study  which  is  used  in  the  pursuit 
of  every  study,  and  the  one  study  useful  in  every  vocation  and 
avocation  of  life.     Hence  its  importance. 

Acknowledgment  is  made  to  each  of  the  persons  who  helped  in 
making  the  book.  G.  A.  Rice,  Belle  Parsons  Clewe,  C.  P.  Fonda, 
and  Alice  E.  Craig,  of  the  Los  Angeles  high  schools,  Martha  Gaddis 
Todd,  and  Professor  A.  J.  Todd  of  the  University  of  Minnesota, 
read  and  criticized  the  manuscript  or  certain  portions  of  it.  Many 
students  and  fellow  teachers  helped  in  the  preparation  of  the  various 
revisions.  Arthur  Babcock  assisted  in  the  directions  for  improving 
the  voice,  and  Hon.  H.  Stanley  Benedict  reviewed  the  chapter  on 
parliamentary  law,  Grace  A.  Turkington  improved  the  arrange- 
ment and  the  rhetoric  of  the  entire  manuscript  by  her  searching 
criticisms  and  painstaking  corrections.  Edith  Gaddis  Brewer  pre- 
pared the  index  and  has  given  indispensable  assistance  throughout 

the  four  years  of  labor  on  the  book. 

JOHN  M.  BREWER 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.  PLANNING  AND  DELIVERING  THE  COMMON  KINDS 

OF  TALKS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  How  TO  Make  axd  how  to  Do 3 

II.  Argument  for  Beginners 25 

III.  The  Speaker's  Appearance  "before  the  Audience      44 

IV.  Improving  the  Vocabulary 57 

V.  Narrations 77 

VI.  Descriptions '  91 

VII.  Simple  Business  Talks 102 

VIII.  Style  in  Oral  Composition 114 

IX.  Explanations  :  Additional  Considerations     .     .     .  136 

X.  Good  Use  of  the  Voice 163 

XI.  Speeches  for  Special  Occasions 176 

The  Announcement,  i  76  —  The  Nominating  Speech,  i  79 
—  The  Introduction  of  a  Speaker,  182  - — ^The  Presentation 
and  Response,  184  —  The  Toast  or  After-Dinner  Speech, 
186  —  The  Oration,  189  —  Other  Talks,  igi. 

XII.  Additional  Talks  and  Exercises 195 

Reading,  195  —  Current  Topics,  201  — The  Discussion, 
203  —  Impromptu  Talks,  207> —  Humorous  Stories  and 
Jokes,  209  —  Interviews,  212  —  Conversations,  216  — 
Extempore  Plays,  220. 

PART  II.    ARGUMENTATION  AND  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

XIII.  Argument  and  Debate 225 

XIV.  Parliamentary  Law 289 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

APPENDIXES  PAGE 

I.  Arranging  and  Conducting  Debates 339 

II.  Propositions  for  Debate 357 

III.  Plan  for  a  Mock  Trial 369 

IV.  Plan  for  a  National  Political  Convention  .     .     .  373 
V.  Lists  of  Topics  for  Reference 375 

VI.  Reference  Tables 3^3 

INDEX 389 


ORAL  ENGLISH 


There  can  be  no  fairer  ambition  than  to  excel  in  talk ;  to  be  affable, 
gay,  ready,  clear,  and  welcome  ;  to  have  a  fact,  a  thought,  or  an  illustration, 
pat  to  every  subject ;  and  not  only  to  cheer  the  flight  of  time  among  our 
intimates,  but  bear  our  part  in  that  great  international  congress,  always 
sitting,  where  public  wrongs  are  first  declared,  public  errors  first  corrected, 
and  the  course  of  public  opinion  shaped,  day  by  day,  a  little  nearer  to  the 
right.  —  Robert  Louis  Stevenson 


PART  I.    PLANNING  AND  DELIVERING 
THE  COMMON   KINDS  OF  TALKS 

CHAPTER  I 
HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 

Everyday  Explanations.  Suppose  that  a  number  of 
students  are  decorating  their  schoolroom.  From  time  to  time 
parts  of  the  work  will  have  to  be  explained  to  individuals 
or  to  groups  of  students,  and  many  questions  will  be  asked 
about  points  that  are  not  clear.  Either  the  teacher  or  one 
of  the  older  students  will  have  to  answer  such  questions. 
Some  of  these  directions  or  explanations  may  be  put  into  two 
or  three  sentences,  others  will  be  much  longer.  Whether 
an  explanation  is  given  to  only  one  student,  or  to  several, 
its  subject  matter  is  essentially  the  same. 

Again,  suppose  some  boys  are  learning  to  play  volley  ball. 
A  difficulty  may  arise,  the  game  may  stop,  and  one  of  the 
players  who  knows  the  game  thoroughly  may  begin  to 
explain  the  rules  to  the  others.  He  will  continue  his  ex- 
planations until  the  obscure  points  are  made  clear,  and  will 
address  his  remarks  to  one  person,  or  to  several  persons,  or 
to  the  whole  group  of  players,  as  the  occasion  demands. 

We  might  cite  many  other  cases  to  show  that  the  student 
who  gives  a  talk  in  school  is  doing  nothing  essentially  differ- 
ent from  that  which  is  done  every  day  at  play,  at  school, 
and  at  home.    Of  course  the  talk  before  a  class  should  be 

3 


4  HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 

more  carefully  planned  ;  but  any  student  who  can  tell  an- 
other how  to  decorate  a  room,  or  who  can  tell  his  friends  on 
the  playground  how  to  take  part  in  a  game,  should  have  no 
difficulty  in  facing  a  class  and  giving  an  interesting  talk. 

There  are  innumerable  situations  in  school  and  in  every- 
day life  where  one  person  finds  himself  explaining  some- 
thing to  others.  If  several  workmen  are  about  to  lift  a 
plate  of  glass  into  place  in  a  store  front,  one  of  them  will 
direct  the  movements  of  the  others.  If  a  group  of  girls  is 
planning  a  picnic  or  a  party,  probably  not  one  of  them  will 
fail  to  express  her  ideas  about  the  event.  The  quarter  back 
on  the  football  team  gives  directions  for  each  play,  using 
the  technical  language  of  signals.  The  foreman  in  a  shop 
makes  oral  explanations  to  his  men,  and  the  men  in  turn 
explain  details  of  their  work  to  each  other.  The  member 
of  a  committee  explains  his  views  to  his  fellow  members. 
The  boy  on  the  street  tells  the  stranger  how  to  reach  the 
railway  station.    And  so  we  might  continue  indefinitely. 

The  Talk  in  Class.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  every 
person,  young  and  old,  every  day  explains,  describes,  and 
argues,  many  students  have  the  idea  that  giving  a  talk  be- 
fore the  class  or  in  the  school  auditorium  is  a  difficult  pro- 
ceeding. As  strange  as  this,  is  the  idea  that  those  who  can 
talk  well  cannot  work  well  and  that  those  who  can  do 
things  cannot  talk  well.  The  athlete,  when  called  upon  to 
speak,  will  sometimes  say,  "Talking  isn't  in  my  line;  it's 
my  business  to  play  baseball."  Or  the  successful  business 
man  will  say,  as  he  begins  his  talk,  "  I  realize  that  I'm  not 
much  of  a  speech  maker."  Yet  these  same  persons,  on  the 
playground  and  in  the  business  house,  every  day  give  talks 
which  are  clear,  interesting,  and  enthusiastic.     In  order  to 


SIMPLE  EXPLANATIONS  5 

succeed  in  a  more  formal  effort,  all  that  anybody  needs  is 
to  consider  in  advance  the  purpose  of  the  talk,  to  plan  an 
outline  of  the  facts  and  ideas  to  be  presented,  to  practice 
it  alone,  and  to  summon  the  aid  of  a  little  confidence  born 
of  the  desire  to  succeed. 

Every  young  person  should  have  an  earnest  desire  to  be 
able  to  speak  well  before  others.  If  any  student  has  no  such 
desire,  he  need  only  observe  the  life  of  street,  store,  home, 
playground,  farm,  school,  and  office  to  have  it  aroused  in 
him.  Without  the  ability  to  express  himself  well,  no  person 
can  reach  his  highest  usefulness. 

What  Explanations  are.  In  the  illustrations  considered 
above  we  have  spoken  of  the  situation  in  which  one  person 
tells  others  how  to  perform  some  act  or  how  to  carry  out 
a  process.  Such  talks  are  called  explanations.  The  kind 
of  explanation  most  often  heard  is  that  in  which  a  process 
or  series  of  operations  is  traced  through  several  steps  to 
the  accomplishment  of  a  purpose.  We  have  this  kind  of 
oral  explanation  when  one  person  tells  another  how  to 
solve  a  problem  in  arithmetic,  how  to  play  tennis,  how 
to  make  a  dress,  or  how  to  build  a  boat.  It  is  with  such 
explanations  that  we  shall  deal  in  this  chapter,  and  we 
shall  leave  to  a  later  chapter  other  and  less  simple  forms. 
This  book  is  itself  an  explanation,  for  it  shows  how  to 
prepare  and  give  talks ;  this  chapter  also  is  an  explanation, 
for  it  explains  how  to  explain. 

We  shall  now  consider  two  phases  of  our  subject :  first, 
how  to  prepare  for  the  explanation ;  second,  how  to  give 
the  talk. 

Studying  for  the  Talk.  It  is  obvious  that  to  explain  any- 
thing,  the   speaker  must  first  understand   it  himself,   and 


6  HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 

this  requires  study.  We  shall  therefore  consider  the  study 
necessary  for  a  successful  explanation  :  ( i )  the  extent  of 
the  study,  (2)  the  sources  of  information,  (3)  recording  the 
facts,  and  (4)  making  the  outline. 

The  Extent  of  the  Study.  We  shall  discuss  here  the 
material  actually  needed  for  the  talk  itself.  This  may  be 
summarized  as  follows : 

1.  The  equipment  (or  the  preliminary  conditions)  for  the 
successful  carrying  out  of  the  process  to  be  explained. 

2.  The  steps  or  parts  of  the  process  itself. 

3.  The  result  to  be  achieved  or  the  uses  to  which  the 
finished  object  is  to  be  put. 

Suppose,  for  example,  we  are  to  explain  how  to  make  and 
adjust  a  paper  cover  for  a  book.  Our  study  must  extend 
far  enough  to  make  us  familiar  with  the  following  details  : 

COVERING  A  BOOK 

1.  Equipment  and  preliminary  conditions. 

a.  Materials  :  suitable  paper ;  paste  or  mucilage. 

b.  Tools  :  scissors  ;  paste  brush. 

c.  Other  conditions :    sufficient   time ;    care  to  prevent  the 

formation  of  wrinkles. 

2.  Process. 

a.  Cutting  the  paper  the  right  size. 

b.  Making  the  cuts  for  the  binding  of  the  book. 

c.  Folding. 

d.  Pasting. 

e.  Pressing. 
f.  Labeling. 

3.  Resuk. 

a.   Saving  the  wear  of  hard  use. 

I).  Preserving  the  book  for  one's  library. 


PREPARING  THE  TALK  7 

As  indicated  by  this  outline,  the  preparatory  study  for  an 
explanation  includes  more  than  the  familiarizing  of  one's 
self  with  the  mere  process  or  operation.  Thus,  if  a  person 
is  to  explain  how  to  wax  or  paint  a  floor,  he  must  inform 
himself  about  the  kind  of  material  to  use,  in  what  quantity 
and  where  to  purchase  it,  and  the  like.  He  must  also 
know  the  results  to  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  various 
kinds  of  materials.  Further,  it  is  important  for  him  to 
remember  that  in  certain  cases  special  preliminary  condi- 
tions are  necessary  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  process. 
For  example,  to  varnish  a  floor  requires  skill ;  to  raise 
oranges  requires  special  knowledge  of  soil  and  climate  ;  to 
cook  or  clean  house  presupposes  proper  dress  ;  to  pitch  in 
a  game  of  baseball  demands  calmness  and  deliberation.  All 
such  qualities  and  conditions,  as  necessary  parts  of  the 
equipment,  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the  study 
for  the  explanation. 

We  shall  now  turn  to  a  group  of  exercises  for  practice 
in  applying  these  principles.  It  will  be  best  for  the  student, 
at  least  at  first,  to  select  subjects  with  which  he  is  somewhat 
familiar.  He  should  try  to  find  interesting  ones,  however, 
and  should  avoid  a  subject  which  is  an  old  story  to  the  other 
members  of  the  class.  Unless  it  is  otherwise  understood, 
the  students  need  not  be  confined  to  the  subjects  listed 
in  the  exercises,  but  may  make  a  selection  from  the  topics  at 
the  end  of  this  chapter,  or  they  may  choose  one  suggested 
by  their  own  experiences.  Students  should  put  interest  and 
enthusiasm  into  the  presentation  of  every  exercise.^ 

^  In  Table  E,  in  Appendix  VI,  will  be  found  a  summary  of  the  steps 
necessary  to  the  preparation  of  a  talk  to  be  given  in  class.  All  the  talks 
should  be  given  at  the  front  of  the  room. 


8 


HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 


EXERCISES 

1.  a.  What  materials  are  necessary  for  making  one  of  the 
articles  listed  below  ?  Plan  an  accurate,  complete  statement  to 
give  to  the  class. 

b.  Prepare  a  brief  oral  explanation  of  the  making  of  one  of 
the  articles.    Give  the  talk  in  class. 


1. 

An  apron. 

11. 

A  drop  curtain. 

2. 

An  electric  battery. 

12. 

A  flytrap. 

3. 

A  cement  walk. 

-^13. 

Fudge. 

4. 

Plaster. 

14. 

Soap. 

5. 

A  fireless  cooker. 

15. 

A  kite. 

6. 

Griddlecakes. 

16. 

Cement. 

7. 

Popcorn  balls. 

-  17. 

Candles. 

8. 

Paste. 

18. 

An  electric  bell. 

9. 

A  sled. 

19. 

Steel. 

10. 

A  tent. 

20. 

An  incandescent  light, 

2.  a.  What  tools  or  equipment  are  necessary  for  carrying  out 
one  of  the  processes  named  below  ?  Prepare  a  statement  to  give 
to  the  class. 

b.  Give  the  complete  talk,  explaining  the  equipment,  the  proc- 
ess, and  the  result. 


1.  Sharpening  a  knife. 

2.  Canning  fruit. 

3.  Cleaning  and  pressing  a  suit. 

4.  Painting  a  picture. 

5.  Fishing. 

6.  Laying  a  water  pipe. 

7.  Polishing  silver. 

8.  Making  cookies. 

9.  Washing  clothes. 
10.  Painting  a  roof. 


11.  Cleaning  a  sewing  machine. 

12.  Clearing  up  a  back  yard. 

13.  Planting  a  tree. 

14.  Washing  dishes. 

15.  Mending  shoes. 

16.  Making  an  excavation. 

17.  Harvesting  a  crop  of  hay. 

18.  Playing  ball. 

19.  Cutting  hair. 

20.  Cleaning  a  cistern. 


3.   a.  Tell  the  complete  equipment  necessary  for  making  one 
of  the  articles  or  for   carrying  out  one  of   the  processes  given 


PREPARING  THE  TALK  9 

below.     Include   not  only  the  materials  and  tools  but  also  the 
conditions  of  environment  and  the  personal  qualifications. 
&.  Give  the  complete  talk  of  explanation. 

1.  Studying  a  lesson.  6.  Entertaining  a  guest. 

2.  Planning  a  party.  7.  Handling  gasoline. 

3.  Camping  out.  8.  Stopping  a  runaway  horse. 

4.  Stealing  a  base.  9.  Raising  hens. 

5.  Skating.  10.  Making  a  speech. 


4.  a.  Make  a  list  of  the  steps  in  the  actual  performance  of 
one  of  the  tasks  mentioned  below.  Be  prepared  to  give  an  attrac- 
tive statement  of  these  steps  to  the  class.  If  necessary,  you  may 
use  notes,  but  do  not  read  your  statements.  Look  into  the  faces 
of  your  hearers. 

b.  Give  the  complete  explanation,  including  equipment,  process, 
and  result. 

1.  Making  a  cloth  bag.  7.  Making  artificial  snow. 

2.  Making  a  stool.  8.  Sharpening  a  saw. 

— 3.  Finishing  the  surface  of  a  desk.  9.   Putting  chains  on  automobile 

4.  Weaning  a  calf.  wheels. 

5.  Making  glass.  10.  Preparing  mashed  potatoes. 

6.  Planting  a  lawn. 

5.  a.  What  would  be  the  advantages  (results)  of  learning  to 
perform  one  of  the  following  processes .'' 
b.  Give  the  complete  explanation. 

_  1.  Making  bread  at  home.  7.  Using  the  forward   pass  in 

2.  Using  the  barometer.  football. 

3.  Making  a  cold  frame.  8.  Making  a  muff. 

4.  Connecting  batteries  in  series.  9.  Learning  to  sing  or  to  play. 

5.  Playing  center  in  basket  ball.  10.  Taking  gymnasium  work. 

6.  Testing  a  water  meter. 

The  Sources  of  Information.  We  have  seen  that  in  the 
study  preparatory  to  the  explanation  we  must  include  the 
equipment,  the  process,  and  the  result.    We  have  now  to 


10      HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO  ^ 

consider  the  sources  of  information  upon  which  we  may 
draw.  Briefly,  these  are  two  :  our  own  store  of  experiences 
and  thoughts,  and  the  experiences  possessed  by  others,  to 
which  we  have  access  througli  books,  magazines,  and  per- 
sonal interviews. 

If  a  person  is  to  draw  upon  his  own  knowledge  for  ma- 
terial, he  should  make  sure  that  this  knowledge  is  reliable, 
complete,  and  fresh  in  his  mind.  For  example,  if  he  is  to 
explain  a  process  in  domestic  chemistry,  such  as  how  to  test 
soap,  it  would  be  well  for  him  to  go  through  the  actual  proc- 
ess in  preparing  for  the  talk.  When  this  is  not  practicable 
he  should  observe  the  process  or  operation  as  performed  cor- 
rectly and  intelligently  by  someone  else.  In  the  case  of  such 
operations  as  the  building  of  a  table,  for  which  it  may  not  be 
feasible  either  to  perform  or  to  observe  the  actual  work,  the 
student  should  mentally  review  the  equipment,  the  steps  of 
the  process,  and  the  result,  so  that  the  necessary  facts  may 
be  as  accurate  and  complete  as  study  can  make  them. 

If  the  information  is  to  be  obtained  by  interviewing  indi- 
viduals, the  student  should  select  those  persons  who  are  well 
informed  on  the  subject,  and  should  put  his  questions  in 
such  a  way  as  to  bring  out  all  the  points  desired.  In  every 
community  will  be  found  men  and  women  of  experience 
who  are  glad  to  explain  to  earnest  students  what  they  know 
about  the  making  of  useful  objects  and  the  doing  of  inter- 
esting things.  The  knowledge  gained  from  such  interviews 
always  makes  good  material  for  class  talks,  and  will  prove 
a  valuable  addition  to  the  class's  stock  of  usable  facts  and 
ideas.  Notes  may  be  taken  by  the  interviewer,  and  some- 
times pictures  or  drawings  may  be  obtained  to  use  in  giving 
the  talks  to  the  class. 


PREPARING  THE  TALK  il 

If  books  and  other  printed  matter  are  to  furnish  the 
needed  information,  ordinarily  the  study  should  extend  to 
several  accounts.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  only 
trustworthy  sources  are  consulted,  for  much  that  appears  in 
print  is  far  from  reliable.  Often  the  explanations  given  in 
newspapers  are  mere  space  fillers,  and  have  not  been  care- 
fully tested.  In  all  his  reading,  the  student  should  test  the 
facts  presented  by  asking  if  they  seem  reasonable  or  pos- 
sible. Often  an  encyclopedia  will  be  the  first  book  to  con- 
sult. Several  references  may  need  to  be  looked  up  before 
all  the  desired  data  are  found ;  for  example,  in  trying  to  find 
out  about  bread,  one  may  need  also  to  look  up  flour,  baking, 
bakery,  wheat,  and  oven.  Books  of  receipts,  textbooks, 
household  magazines,  scientific  and  technical  periodicals, 
nature  books,  and  business  journals  contain  excellent  mate- 
rial for  explanations.  The  student  should  frequently  consult 
his  teacher,  a  librarian,  or  some  other  well-informed  person 
about  possible  sources  of  reliable  information. 

In  gathering  information  from  printed  matter,  notes, 
drawings,  and  diagrams  may  be  made,  and  the  dictionary 
should  be  consulted  for  the  meaning  of  unfamiliar  terms. 
Such  helps  as  pictures  and  diagrams  may  be  used  in  class 
if  they  will  make  the  explanation  clearer. 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Which  of  the  explanations  suggested  below  could  you 
make  without  obtaining  outside  help  ?  Which  could  you  study 
by  performing  the  process  or  by  observing  it?  Come  to  class 
prepared  to  make  an  attractive  report,  telling  how  you  would 
prepare  a  talk  on  one  of  these  subjects  or  on  another  subject 
selected  by  yourself. 


12      HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 

6.  Follow  the  suggestions  given  above  in  preparing  the  talk ; 
give  the  talk  in  class. 

1.  Running  an  elevator.  6.  Breaking  a  horse. 

2.  Testing  cloth  for  pure  wool.  7.  Operating  an  aeroplane. 

3.  Making  paste.  8.  Cleaning  spots  from  a  sink  board. 

4.  Cleaning  a  bicycle.  9.  Darning  stockings. 

^    6.  Hemming  a  handkerchief.     xO.   Making  a  toy  windmill. 

2.  a.  In  preparing  one  of  the  following  explanations,  what 
person  or  persons  in  your  community  would  you  interview  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  information  ?  Be  prepared  to  state  in 
class  the  reasons  for  your  selections,  and  the  plan  you  would  use 
in  the  interview. 

b.  Carry  out  your  plan,  and  come  to  class  prepared  to  give 
the  complete  talk. 

1.  How  to  grow  corn.  5.  How  to  make  salt-rising  bread. 

2.  How  to  make  jelly.  6.  How  to  care  for  a  pet  rabbit. 

3.  How  to  determine  if  a  soil       7.  How  to  mix  paint. 

is  fertile.  8.  How  to  cover  an  ironing  board. 

4.  How  to  make  an  extension      9.  How  to  pack  china  for  shipment. 

ladder.  10.  How  to  crate  a  sewing  machine. 

3.  a.  What  printed  matter  would  you  consult  in  preparing  for 
one  of  the  explanations  listed  below  ?  State  in  class  how  you 
would  go  about  finding  information  in  books  and  magazines. 

b.  Follow  out  your  plan,  and  give  the  complete  talk  in  class. 

"1.  How  to  play  lacrosse.  6.  Growing  alfalfa. 

2,  Cheese  making.  7.  How  to  use  sour  milk. 

V3.  Diamond  cutting.  8.  Transportation  of  fresh  fruit. 

4.  How  bricks  are  made.  ^^.  How  to  make  artificial  flowers. 

5.  How  to  make  curtains.  10.  How  to  build  a  beehive. 

Recording  the  Facts.  Notes  should  be  made  throughout 
the  study,  whether  the  information  be  gathered  from  books 


PREPARING  THE  TALK  13 

or  persons  or  from  one's  personal  experience.  The  memo- 
randa should  be  recorded  on  slips  of  paper  or  in  notebooks, 
in  such  a  way  that  they  will  be  available  for  use  in  the 
speech  itself.  They  may  then  be  filed  away  for  possible 
reference  later.  Statistics,  measurements,  diagrams,  and 
pictures  illustrating  the  subject  should  be  carefully  recorded 
and  saved,  even  if  all  of  them  are  not  likely  to  be  used  in 
the  talk.  The  purpose  of  the  study  is  to  know  the  subject, 
and  if  the  student  masters  it  he  will  have  no  difficulty  with 
the  talk,  or  with  possible  questions  afterwards.  The  student 
who  reads  only  enough  for  the  talk  itself  will,  nine  times 
out  of  ten,  if  the  subject  is  at  all  complicated,  have  diffi- 
culty in  the  presentation.  We  need  an  extensive  back- 
ground of  knowledge ;  otherwise  we  have  little  right  to 
speak.  Time  spent  in  exhaustive  study  of  a  subject  will 
add  to  a  person's  experience  and  education  that  which  may 
prove  of  value  many  times  in  his  life. 

Making  the  Outline.  During  the  process  of  collecting 
and  recording  information,  topics  for  an  outline  will  begin 
to  show  themselves.  As  these  topics  present  themselves, 
they  should  be  used  to  classify  the  material  collected.  Then 
they  should  be  arranged  in  a  logical  order.  No  doubt  for 
most  explanations  the  topics  should  follow  the  order  sug- 
gested on  page  6,  namely,  the  equipment,  the  process,  and 
the  result.  For  the  talk  before  the  class,  however,  there 
should  also  be  a  sentence  or  two  of  introduction,  which 
should  make  clear  to  the  hearers  exactly  what  the  subject 
is,  and  a  brief  summary  or  conclusion  at  the  end. 

The  following  plan  may  be  used  in  arranging  the  material 
for  a  talk  on  the  construction  of  an  ornamental  lamp  shade  : 


14      HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 

MAKING  A  LAMP   SHADE 
(The  Main  Points  of  a  Typical  Outline) 

1.  Introduction :  the  reason  for  making  the  lamp  shade. 

2.  Equipment. 

a.  Materials. 

b.  Tools. 

c.  Other  conditions  :  time,  skill. 

3.  Process. 

a.  Cutting  out  the  parts. 

b.  Fitting  the  parts  together. 

c.  Putting  in  the  glass. 

d.  Attaching  the  shade  to  the  lamp. 

4.  Conclusion  :  the  result. 

a.  Use. 

b.  Beauty. 

c.  Cost. 

It  will  be  noted  that  we  have  omitted  from  the  above 
outline  many  details,  such  as  the  exact  list  of  materials  and 
tools  necessary,  the  different  operations  in  cutting  out  the 
parts,  and  the  detailed  account  of  cost.  These  should  be 
added  to  the  growing  outline  as  we  study  the  subject,  so 
that  every  needed  fact  will  be  included.  When  the  explana- 
tion is  given,  however,  a  brief  outline  like  the  one  above  is 
all  that  the  student  will  need  to  have  at  hand.  If  the  subject 
is  simple  and  the  facts  well  fixed  in  mind,  notes  may  be 
dispensed  with  altogether  when  talking.  But  in  the  prepa- 
ration for  the  talk,  no  matter  how'  simple  and  well  known 
the  subject,  time  spent  in  making  a  complete  outline  is 
not  wasted. 


PREPARING  THE  TALK 


15 


EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Study  one  of  the  subjects  below,  or  another  of  your  own 
selection.  Exercise  special  care  in  recording  the  facts.  Bring  to 
class  all  notes,  drawings,  figures,  etc.,  which  you  have  assembled. 
Be  prepared  to  show  these  to  the  class,  and  to  give  an  attractive 
talk  about  your  methods  of  gathering  and  recording  material. 

b.  Give  the  explanation  in  class. 


1. 

How  to  make  a  canvas  ham- 

—6. 

How  to  press  and  mount  flowers. 

mock. 

7. 

How  to  make  a  stairway. 

2. 

How  to  shoe  a  horse. 

-~8. 

How  to  make  a  toboggan. 

^. 

How  to  set  a  dinner  table. 

9. 

Felling  a  big  tree. 

"M. 

How  to  make  a  toy  boat. 

10. 

Loading   a   pack   animal.     (See 

—5. 

How  to  show  magnetism 

Stevenson's  "  Travels  with  a 

with  iron  filings. 

Donkey.") 

2.  a.  Prepare  outlines  for  five  of  the  subjects  below,  making 
each  outline  at  least  as  extensive  as  that  on  the  lamp  shade.  Be 
prepared  to  read  them,  or  to  put  them  on  the  board,  or  to  pass 
them  around  the  class  for  criticism. 

6.  Prepare  to  give  one  of  the  explanations  in  class. 


1.  Repairing  a  leaky  faucet.  6. 

2.  Using  a  vacuum  cleaner.  7. 

3.  Staining  a  piece  of  furniture.      8. 

4.  Using  a  washing  machine.       ~9. 

5.  Preparing  cbffee.  10. 


Tempering  iron. 

Binding  books. 

Making  an  electric  push  button. 

Making  a  toy  wagon. 

Making  a  salad. 


3.  a.  Prepare  and  bring  to  class  a  complete  outline  for  one  of 
these  topics,  including  all  the  details  which  will  be  touched  upon 
in  the  talk. 

h.  Give  the  explanation  in  class. 


1.  Transplanting  a  rosebush.  6. 

2.  Making  a  camp  fireplace.  7. 

3.  Making  a  handball  backstop.      8. 

4.  Making  grape  juice.  9. 

5.  Making  a  box.  "~10. 


Hanging  a  screen  door. 
Diving  for  pearls. 
Cooking  a  breakfast. 
Making  a  henhouse. 
How  to  play  checkers. 


1 6  HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 

Oral  Practice.  Having  gathered  and  recorded  the  neces- 
sary information,  and  having  prepared  a  satisfactory  outhne, 
the  student  should  next  practice  giving  the  talk.  For  this 
the  full  outline  should  be  used,  together  with  whatever  notes, 
drawings,  and  other  aids  will  be  of  assistance.  The  practice 
should  be  as  nearly  like  the  actual  talk  as  possible  ;  the 
student  should  learn  not  to  rely  too  much  on  his  memo- 
randa, and  should  rehearse  the  talk  in  a  standing  position. 

Introducing  the  Subject.  The  introduction,  as  we  have 
suggested  above,  may  announce  the  subject  and  state  briefly 
why  it  is  of  interest.  It  may  also  connect  an  unfamiliar 
subject  with  ideas  or  facts  already  in  the  minds  of  the 
hearers.  For  example,  in  an  explanation  of  how  to  make 
a  stool,  one  might  begin  by  saying :  "I  am  going  to  ex- 
plain how  anybody  who  can  use  carpenter's  tools  can  make 
a  stool.  This  is  one  of  the  articles  of  kitchen  furniture 
that  is  often  more  serviceable  than  a  chair." 

Developing  the  Explanation.  Having  introduced  the 
subject,  the  student  must  proceed  to  develop  it,  using  a  plan 
similar  to  that  suggested  above.  He  must  keep  his  hearers 
constantly  in  mind,  making  all  the  points  clear  to  them, 
and  proceeding  from  one  point  to  another  so  carefully  that 
no  one  can  fail  to  follow  him.  At  the  same  time  he  must 
not  become  tiresome  by  going  too  slowly.  Experience  and 
a  thoughtful  regard  for  others  will  teach  him  the  golden 
mean  between  too  few  words  and  too  many.  In  some 
explanations  the  subjects  are  so  common  or  so  simple 
that  many  points  may  be  omitted  because  they  are  obvious. 
Thus,  it  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  tell  much  about  the 
tools  necessary  to  make  a  box,  or  to  discuss  the  usefulness 
of  a  screen  door. 


PREPARING  THE  TALK  17 

Ending  the  Talk.  Our  discussion  of  the  outline  has  in- 
dicated how  the  talk  should  be  concluded.  Any  interesting 
bit  of  information  about  the  object  or  process  as  a  whole, 
but  not  about  any  part  or  detail,  will  serve  to  round  out 
the  talk  and  give  it  a  good  ending.  In  the  outline  of  the 
lamp  shade  we  suggested  Use,  Beauty,  and  Cost  as  topics 
of  general  interest.  Other  considerations  sometimes  appro- 
priate for  conclusions  are :  importance ;  comparison  with 
other  objects  or  methods  ;  improvements  that  may  be  ex- 
pected. For  example,  our  explanation  of  a  new  type  of 
aeroplane  might  end  thus  :  "  This  is  the  latest  and  most 
efficient  machine  yet  designed,  but  the  experiences  gained 
in  the  war  may  result  in  the  invention  of  new  types  very 
different  from  any  now  in  use." 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Select  one  of  the  subjects  below,  and  plan  your  opening 
sentences  for  the  explanation.  Then  practice  this  introduction 
until  it  goes  smoothly  and  sounds  well,  but  do  not  memorize  or 
write  down  actual  sentences.    Give  the  introduction  in  class. 

h.  Practice  the  complete  talk  of  explanation,  and  give  it  in  class, 

1.  How  to  make  lemonade.        ""^T.  How  to  make  a  rag  dolL 

2.  How  to  magnetize  a  needle.      8.  How  to  build  a  brick  wall. 

3.  How  to  hang  a  hammock.         9.  How  to  make  a  meat  loaf. 

4.  How  to  play  volley  ball.  10.  How  to  make  a  folding  ironing 

5.  How  to  care  for  a  cow.  board. 

6.  How  to  preserve  insects. 

2.  a.  Prepare  concluding  sentences  for  a  talk  of  explanation 
on  one  of  the  subjects  given  below.  Give  the  conclusion  in  class 
in  such  a  way  as  to  show  that  you  understand  the  whole  process. 

h.  Prepare  the  complete  talk  —  introduction,  body,  and  con- 
clusion —  and  give  it  in  class. 


1 8  HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 

1.  How  to  sharpen  a  plane.  6.  How  to  blacken  russet  shoes. 

2.  How  to  cook  beets.  7.  How  to  use  a  fish  net. 

3.  How  to  make  a  swing.  8.  How  to  make  a  giant  stride. 
"~-4.  How  to  blow  an  egg.  '^.  How  to  mend  gloves. 

5.  How  to  read  a  meter.  10.  How  to  put  on  a  gas  mantle. 

3.  Study  the  following  explanation  and  be  prepared  to  discuss 
its  merits  or  its  defects  in  class. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  A  BUNNIE  OUT  OF  A  COOKED  EGG 

Did  you  ever  try  to  make  a  bunnie  out  of  a  cooked  egg .''  When  your 
egg  is  cooked,  take  some  heavy  white  paper  and  cut  from  it  two  long 
white  ears  that  fit  the  size  of  the  egg.  Cut  also  four  little  rounding  legs. 
They  need  not  be  shaped  carefully,  but  each  must  be  the  same  in  shape 
as  the  other.  Take  some  good  glue  and  paste  bunnie's  legs  to  the  egg. 
Let  them  dry  well.  Do  not  touch  them  or  lift  the  egg  till  all  is  thor- 
oughly dry.  Then  add  bunnie's  ears  near  the  point  of  the  egg.  Make 
a  crayon  eye  with  a  pink  crayon  on  each  side  of  the  point  of  the  egg. 
Cut  a  soft  round  of  white  cotton  and  stick  this  where  bunnie's  tail 
should  go.  Then  stand  your  bunnie  on  his  feet.  He  will  be  a 
pretty  toy  —  one  that  you  can  play  with,  and  one  that  you  may  eat.  — 
New  York  Tribune. 

The  Use  of  Helps.  If  the  students  have  taken  an  interest 
in  their  work,  many  of  them,  before  this  point  has  been 
reached,  have  used  some  of  the  common  aids  in  explaining. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  helps  are  gestures,  drawings, 
and  the  exhibition  of  actual  objects. 

Using  the  Hands.  Gestures  are  so  useful  that  we  can 
hardly  do  without  them.  In  many  of  the  talks  we  find  our- 
selves using  simple  hand  movements  to  aid  in  the  explana- 
tion. It  is  useless,  however,  to  try  to  force  the  hands  into 
the  talk,  for  this  would  make  for  awkwardness  and  self- 
consciousness.  Only  remember  that  they  need  not  be  held 
back  if  they  come  naturally  into  play.     And  perhaps  the 


AIDS  IN  EXPLAINING  19 

best  way  to  accustom  them  to  helping  is  to  put  them  to 
work  drawing  and  handhng  objects. 

Drawing  Diagrams.  Drawings  are  a  necessity  in  some 
explanations,  and  every  student  should  do  his  best,  even  if 
he  has  not  had  definite  training  for  this.  If  we  look  for 
a  moment  at  Exercise  i  on  page  17,  we  shall  see  that 
subjects  4  and  10  could  not  be  adequately  treated  without 
blackboard  diagrams.  Doubtless,  also,  the  talks  on  subjects 
2,  3,  7,  and  8  would  be  greatly  helped  by  the  use  of  simple 
sketches.  However,  many  explanations  are  of  course  better 
without  drawings  ;  for  instance,  it  would  be  a  waste  of  time, 
or  an  exhibition  of  poor  judgment,  to  attempt  drawings  for 
subjects  I,  5,  or  9,  unless  perhaps  one  were  to  sketch  a 
cow's  stall.  The  student,  then,  must  in  each  case  decide 
whether  or  not  a  drawing  will  be  a  real  help,  and  act 
accordingly.  In  most  cases  the  speaker  should  draw  as  he 
talks,  taking  care  to  make  his  diagram  clear  but  not  spend- 
ing too  much  time  on  it.  He  should  always  talk  toward 
the  audience  and  not  toward  the  blackboard.  The  sample 
drawings  on  page  21  are  sketches  actually  used  in  classes 
in  Oral  English. 

# 

Using  Actual  Objects.  In  some  explanations  the  exhibi- 
tion of  the  objects  themselves  is  much  more  effective  than 
the  use  of  drawings  alone.  Thus  in  Exercise  2  above,  the 
explanations  of  i  and  9  would  be  improved  by  the  display 
of  the  blade  of  the  plane  and  of  the  glove  which  needs 
mending.  Probably  4  and  10  would  also  be  greatly  im- 
proved if  the  speaker  could  handle,  as  he  speaks,  an  egg 
in  the  one  case  and  a  gas  mantle  in  the  other.  If  it  is 
practicable  the  speaker  should  perform  the  operation  itself 
before    the   class,    talking   as    he    works,    just   as   would   a 


20      HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 

domestic-science  teacher  in  explaining  how  to  prepare  beets 
for  cooking.  Sometimes  effective  use  may  be  made  of 
simple  devices,  such  as  a  strip  of  paper  to  represent  a  fish 
net  in  explaining  how  the  net  is  used,  or  a  pencil  to  repre- 
sent the  post  for  the  giant  stride.  We  must  in  every  case 
study  the  subject  to  see  what  helps  will  be  most  effective. 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Plan  an  illustration  to  use  in  one  of  the  explanations 
suggested  below.  Talking  as  you  draw,  give  that  portion  of  the 
explanation  which  should  accompany  the  illustration. 

b.  Give  the  complete  explanation  in  class,  drawing  the  illustra- 
tion at  the  board. 

r-.  How  to  lay  a  brick  wall.  6.   How  to  make  a  pattern  for  a 

^.  How  to  lay  out  a  tennis  court.  kimono  waist. 

3.  How  to  stake  a  young  tree.  7.  How  to  connect  two  electric 

4.  How  to  trim  a  rosebush.  bells  to  one  button. 

5.  How  to  raise  into  place  a  tall  8.  How  to  use  a  springboard. 

flagpole.  9.  How  to  make  a  child's  bib. 

10.  How  to  make  a  picture  frame. 

2.  Decide  upon  the  proper  objects,  models,  or  other  helps  to 
use  in  giving  a  talk  on  one  of  the  subjects  below.  Practice  the 
explanation,  and  give  the  talk  in  class. 

1.  How  to  splice  wire.  7.  How  to  tie  various  knots. 

2.  How  to  load  a  camera.  8.  How  to  make  paper  flowers. 

3.  How.  to  do  a  trick.  9.  How  to  sew  a  baseball  cover. 

4.  How  to  mend  torn  books.  10.  How  to  make  a  folding  lunch 

5.  How  to  use  a  pencil  sharpener.  box. 

6.  How  to  make  a  rosette. 

* 

Selecting  New  Subjects.  We  have  now  had  opportunity 
to  study  and  give  many  explanations,  in  turn  concentrating 
attention  upon  each  part  of  the  talk,  and  learning  to  use 


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Oujiss  Onoiju-shecl         Japanese  God  \A/<  nd-cuaaon 


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SAMPLE  BLACKBOARD  DRAWINGS 
From  students'  sketches  in  Oral  English  classes 


21 


22 


HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 


various  helps  to  clearness.  We  shall  assume  that  we  are 
prepared  to  select  subjects  of  our  own,  to  study  these  sub- 
jects thoroughly,  to  practice  by  ourselves,  and  to  give 
successful  talks.  The  possible  subjects  are  as  numerous 
as  the  activities  of  life  itself.  The  list  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter,  which  is  made  up  of  subjects  already  used  in 
classes  in  Oral  English,  will  furnish  suggestions. 

EXERCISE 

Select  a  subject  which  has  not  yet  been  discussed  in  your  class. 
It  need  not  be  a  difficult  or  a  complex  one,  but  it  should  be  inter- 
esting to  the  class.  Prepare  a  complete  talk  of  explanation,  using 
all  the  experience  you  have  thus  far  gained. 

SPECIMEN  SUBJECTS 


1.  Outdoor  Crafts 

How  to  make 

a  summerhouse. 

a  canoe 

a  canvas  boat. 

an  ice  boat. 

a  model  of  an  aeroplane. 

a  galley. 

a  coaster,  entirely  of 
wood. 

a  fish  trap. 

a  log  house. 

a  sod  house. 

a  summer  camp. 

a  mud  house. 

a  figure-four  trap. 

a  top. 

a  homemade  merry-go- 
round. 


How  to  make 
a  rat  trap. 
a  quail  trap. 

a  steering  gear  for  a  coaster. 
a  kite  reel. 

a  camp  stove,  of  rocks, 
a  camp  bedstead,  of  limbs 

of  trees. 
a  sundial. 
a  sling. 
a  lobster  trap, 
a  toy  balloon. 
a  toy  sucker, 
a  skate  sail. 
a  rustic  gate, 
a  rustic  fence, 
a  rustic  arch, 
a  shelter  tent. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  TALKS 


23 


2.  Games  and  Sports 

How  to  play      How  to  play  How  to 

tennis.  association  football.        put  the  shot, 

rounders.  marbles. 

two  old  cat.  cricket. 

quoits.  tag. 

golf.  spin-the-plate. 

geography.  hare  and  hounds. 

handball.  hockey. 

basket  ball.  Rugby  football. 


bat. 

stand  when  bunting. 

pitch  curves. 

run  100  yards. 

swim. 

dive. 

do  the  high  jump. 


3.  Miscellaneous  Useful  Articles  and  Processes 


How  to  make 
a  hatstand. 

a  handkerchief  holder, 
an  emery  bag. 
a  reed  basket, 
a  letter  case, 
a  sleeve, 
a  clay  bowl. 
a  food  cooler, 
a  needlebook. 
a  rustic  stool. 
a  distillate  burner, 
a  letter  scale. 
a  sleeve  board, 
a  copper  jewel  box. 

4.  Household  Processes 

How  to  make 
cake, 
soap, 
butter. 

Mulligan  stew. 
Dutch  cheese, 
bread, 
muffins, 
candy. 


How  to 

remove  ink  stains. 

rebind  old  books. 

brush  the  teeth  correctly. 

decorate  a  room  economi- 
cally. 

color  artificial  flowers. 

use  a  stencil. 

sharpen  scissors. 

put  up  a  picture. 

repair  a  bicycle  puncture. 

half-sole  a  shoe  without 
cobbler's  tools. 

cut  stovepipe. 

hang  a  gate. 


How  to 

wash  windows, 
clean  a  sink, 
sweep  and  dust  a  room, 
put  up  peaches, 
cook  mush, 
buy  meat, 
test  eggs, 
wash  lace. 


24 


HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  HOW  TO  DO 


5.  Garden  and  Farm 

How  to  make 

a  fireless  brooder. 

berry  boxes. 

a  colony  coop. 

a  hayrack. 

a  brace  for  a  fence. 

a  chicken  fence. 

an  automatic  chicken 

feeder, 
a  gate. 

a  water  tank. 
a  feed  box. 
a  barn, 
an  arbor. 
a  rake. 
a  seed  box. 
a  harrow, 
a  grain  bin. 


How  to 

care  for  a  lawn. 

dry  prunes. 

plant  a  vegetable  garden. 

get  rid  of  insects. 

irrigate  trees. 

anchor  a  fence  post. 

grow  cranberries. 

grow  sugar. 

plant  rose  slips. 

repair  a  wagon. 

care  for  a  horse. 

care  for  hogs. 

graft  a  tree. 

repair  harness. 

hang  a  barn  door. 

care  for  a  calf. 

raise  corn. 


CHAPTER  II 

ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Arguing  is  almost  as  common  as  explaining.  We  are 
constantly  tr)dng  to  prove  to  another  person  that  a  certain 
opinion,  act,  or  object  is  the  better  one.  And  arguing  is 
not  confined  to  older  persons.  Play  life,  home  life,  and 
school  life  are  filled  with  earnest  arguments,  in  which  even 
young  children  do  not  hesitate  to  take  a  part. 

Argument  in  Conversation.  Most  of  our  arguments  are 
not  in  the  form  of  talks  before  an  audience,  but  occur  in 
conversation  with  one  or  more  companions.  We  argue  as 
to  whether  we  should  have  a  picnic  or  a  party ;  whether 
the  summer  vacation  should  be  longer  or  shorter ;  whether 
or  not  Henry  should  be  the  pitcher  for  the  next  game  ; 
whether  this  automobile  or  that  is  the  better ;  whether  a 
business  or  a  profession  offers  the  greater  opportunity  ; 
whether  or  not  government  ownership  of  railroads  would 
be  advantageous.  In  these  conversations  the  different  per- 
sons are  really  arguing  in  much  the  same  way  that  debaters 
do,  only  the  remarks  in  conversation  are  much  shorter  than 
in  a  debate. 

In  such  conversational  arguments  it  is  important  that 
all  persons  concerned  understand  exactly  what  the  question 
is.  It  will  hardly  do  to  talk  "about"  a  thing,  for  some 
persons  would  surely  be  confused  as  to  the  real  issue.  The 
question  should  always  be  stated  definitely ;    for  example, 

25 


26  ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

'"  If  school  closes  the  middle  of  June,  should  it  begin  again 
the  first  or  the  last  part  of  September  ?  " 

The  more  definitely  the  question  can  be  stated  by  one  of 
the  speakers,  the  better.  Thus,  early  in  the  conversation,  one 
of  the  group  may  say,  "  The  question  is.  Can  a  boy  who  has 
to  work  in  a  store  after  school  hours  do  his  best  in  school  ?  " 
or,  "  What  we  have  to  decide  is.  Should  Henr)^  pitch  in 
the  next  game  ?  "  During  the  course  of  the  conversation, 
if  a  person  wanders  from  the  subject,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  remind  him  of  the  exact  question.  This  may  be  done  in 
some  such  way  as  this  :  "'  You  may  be  right  about  the  value 
of  business  experience,  but  we  are  talking  of  the  effect  of 
extra  work  on  the  boy's  scholarship."  Or,  in  the  case  of  the 
game :  "Are  you  speaking  about  a  regular  game  or  a  prac- 
tice game  }  "  Such  a  question  will  bring  the  discussion  back 
to  the  point,  and  will  give  the  conversation  a  definite  aim. 

Many  conversational  arguments  are  carried  on  by  means 
of  questions  and  answers.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  we 
are  talking  with  a  person  who  believes  that  all  city  schools 
should  be  built  in  the  suburbs,  the  children  being  carried 
to  and  from  school  on  the  electric  cars.  We  should  ask 
him  :  "  How  could  the  car  companies  handle  the  children  .? 
What  is  the  matter  with  the  schools  as  they  are  ?  How 
would  the  schoolhouses  be  planned  ?"  In  this  way  we 
should  learn  his  ideas,  and  then  could  raise  objections  for 
him  to  answer.  He  would  do  most  of  the  arguing  until  we 
began  to  understand  his  scheme.  Then,  if  we  disagreed 
with  him,  we  should  express  ourselves  more  and  more 
freely,  until  the  talk  became  a  real  argument. 

It  is  in  arguments  that  we  are  most  often  tempted  to 
monopolize   the   conversation,  to   exaggerate,  and   to   be  a 


CONVERSATIONAL  ARGUMENTS  27 

little  sharp  toward  those  who  do  not  agree  with  us.  We 
need,  therefore,  to  set  a  guard  upon  our  tongues,  and  upon 
our  manners.  If  anybody  finds  that  he  is  allowing  himself 
to  be  discourteous  in  his  arguments,  he  had  better  stop 
until  he  can  exhibit  perfect  self-control. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Choose  a  partner  for  an  argumentative  conversation,  on  one 
of  the  subjects  listed  below,  to  be  given  before  the  class.  Study 
the  question  and  come  to  class  prepared  to  hold  the  conversation 
with  your  partner  at  the  front  of  the  room,  one  of  you  taking  the 
affirmative  side  and  the  other  the  negative.  Remember  (i)  to^ 
sdck  to  the  point,  (2)  to  do  your  share  of  the  arguing,  (3)  not 
to  monopolize  the  time,  (4)  to  be  fair  in  your  statements  and  in 
your  manner.  Tr}'  to  convince  your  partner  that  your  side  is  the 
right  one. 

After  the  argument  the  class  may  vote  on  two  points  :  (i)  Which 
side  of  the  question  is  the  right  one .?  (2)  Which  speaker  was  the 
more  effective  ? 

1.  The  school  committee  (or  board)  should  vote  sufficient  money 
to  equip  this  school  building  with  a  vacuum-cleaning  system. 

2.  The phonograph  is  better  than  the . 

3.  In  all  ordinary  cases  a  man  should  give  his  seat  in  a  street  car 
to  a  woman. 

4.  If  any  nation  violates  an  international  agreement,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  United  States  to  demand  an  accounting. 

5.  Housekeepers  should  learn  to  use  butterine  instead  of  butter. 

6.  Plumbing  should  be  taught  in  this  school. 

7.  It  is  better  for  a  city  to  build  subways  than  elevated  railways. 

8.  The   domestic-science   department   should    organize   classes    in 
laundering. 

9.  Sawdust   is    better    than    sand    for    the   jumping    pits   on    the 
athletic  field. 

10.  The  school  playground  should  be  open  on  Saturdays. 


28  ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

2.  Choose  as  a  partner  for  a  conversational  argument  some 
person  who  is  more  familiar  than  you  are  with  one  of  the  subjects 
below.  You  are  to  question  him  before  the  class,  as  to  what  are 
his  ideas  on  the  subject.  The  conversation  may  proceed  as  sug- 
gested in  Exercise  i .  If  none  of  the  questions  below  prove  suitable, 
those  in  Appendix  II  may  be  suggestive. 

1.  High  schools  should  teach  Esperanto. 

2.  Manual-training  classes  should  be  organized  in  this  school  to 
do  the  janitor  work  of  the  building. 

3.  The  pupils  of  the  school  should  be  allowed  to  pass  rules  for 
a  standard  of  student  behavior. 

4.  The  indirect-lighting  system  is  better  than  any  direct  system. 

5.  Schools  should  be  in  session  from  nine  until  four. 

6.  This  city  should  start  a  municipal  dairy. 

7.  The typewriter  (or  sewing  machine)  is  the  best. 

8.  The  horse  will  sometime  be  entirely  supplanted  by  the  motor. 

9.  Princeton  University  is  wise  in  requiring  every  student  to  learn 
to  swim  before  graduation. 

10.  A  daily  newspaper  should  be  issued  by  our  city  (or  town) 
government. 

3.  The  class  may  be  divided  into  groups  of  three  or  more  for 
argumentative  conversations.  Each  group  may  meet  and  select  a 
question  for  discussion,  and  determine  which  members  of  the  group 
shall  take  the  affirmative  and  which  the  negative  side.  The  aim 
of  each  group  should  be  to  see  (i)  that  ever}'body  sticks  to  the 
question,  (2)  that  each  side  of  the  question  has  a  fair  amount  of 
time,  and  (3)  that  each  person  has  an  opportunity  to  share  in  the 
talk.    The  following  questions  are  suggested  : 

1.  Athletics  help  school  spirit. 

2.  The  study  of is  harder  than  that  of . 


3.  It  is  not  worth  while  for  a  person  to  read  the  comic  pages  of 
the  newspapers. 

4.  Hurdy-gurdies  should  be  prohibited. 


CONVERSATIONAL  ARGUMENTS  29 

5.  This  city  should  establish  a  zoological  park. 

6.  The  United  States  should  substantially  increase  its  army. 

7.  Woman  suffrage  should  be  adopted  by  all  the  states  (or  by  the 
federal  government). 

8.  The  characters  in  "  Ivanhoe "  are  truer  to  life  than  those  in 
"  David  Copperfield." 

9.  A  high-school  student  should  earn  his  own  spending  money. 
10.  -Prohibition  should  be  adopted  in  this  city  (or  state  or  nation). 

The  Talk  before  the  Class.  Success  in  conversational  ar- 
gument is  important,  but  a  person  does  not  become  efficient 
until  he  has  had  practice  in  making  connected  arguments. 
Such  arguments  are  not  different  from  those  given  in  daily 
life ;  for  example, .  probably  many  students  have  already 
had  the  experience  of  presenting  at  some  length  to  the 
principal  or  a  teacher  an  argument  for  some  privilege  in 
connection  with  his  school  studies,  or  of  making  to  his 
father  or  mother  an  argumentative  request  for  permission 
to  carry  out  a  certain  plan.  But  even  if  the  longer  argu- 
mentative talk  seems  new  and  difficult,  the  work  we  have 
already  done  in  making  simple  explanations  is  sufficient 
preparation.  Explanation  is  much  like  argument ;  in  the 
latter,  however,  we  not  only  explain  but  compare  two  ideas, 
and  show^  that  one  of  them  is  better  than  the  other,  or  one 
true  and  the  other  false. 

What  we  shall  try  to  do  in  this  chapter  is  to  find  out 
how  to  prepare  and  deliver  a  systematic  argument.  To 
make  a  complete,  effective  argument  which  proves  an  im- 
portant statement  is  a  complicated  task,  and  to  try  to  cover 
the  points  fully  by  dividing  the  work  between  two  or  more 
debaters  is  more  complex  still.  Therefore,  we  shall  here 
attempt  a  simpler  task  —  to  see  how  a  student  may  obtain 
a  good  start  in  systematic  argument. 


30  ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Using  a  Clear  Plan.  When  a  person  begins  a  new  task, 
he  often  follows  closely  the  method  or  pattern  successfully 
used  by  somebody  else.  Thus  the  boy  who  is  learning 
stenography  follows  with  painstaking  care  a  system  already 
worked  out.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to 
one  good  pattern  of  an  oral  argument,  and  shall  ask  the 
learner  to  follow  the  plan  closely.  After  he  has  mastered 
this  plan  he  will  be  in  a  position  to  decide  whether  he  can 
succeed  better  by  making  changes  in  the  method.  More- 
over, we  shall  not  here  concern  ourselves  with  detailed 
reasons  for  the  directions  we  follow,  but  shall  reserve  such 
considerations  for  treatment  in  Chapter  XIII. 

In  argument  as  in  explanation  the  outline  is  of  first  im- 
portance. As  a  matter  of  fact  the  shortest  speech  should 
and  does  have  an  outline.  Yet  few  persons  who  argue  will 
take  the  trouble  to  prepare  one,  and  many  students  seem  to 
believe  that  such  a  help  is  unnecessary.  But  every  talk  has 
a  plan,  either  good  or  bad ;  even  if  the  speaker  neglects  to 
prepare  a  good  outline,  he  is  nevertheless  following  some 
plan  when  he  talks,  and  it  is  probably  a  poor  one.  Advance 
account,  therefore,  must  be  taken  of  one's  points,  and  the 
best  outline  must  be  selected.  It  is  an  unusually  gifted  and 
well-trained  person  who  can  mentally  arrange  the  topics  as  he 
is  speaking.  Nearly  everybody,  whether  beginner  or  expert, 
needs  to  write  down  and  study  his  topics  before  he  can  work 
out  the  proper  order  of  points  and  be  sure  that  his  argument 

is  complete. 

EXERCISE 

Let  us  study  the  plan  used  by  an  experienced  speaker.  Listen 
to  the  arguments  made  in  one  or  two  of  the  following  cases,  and 
take  notes,  jotting  down  the  topics  in  the  order  given.     Study 


PLANNING  THE  TALK  31 

these  topics  to  see  if  they  are  arranged  effectively.     Read  the 
topics  to  the  class  and  give  your  opinions  and  criticisms. 

1.  A  lecture.  4.  A  business  man's  talk. 

2.  A  sermon.  5.  A  political  speech. 

3.  A  talk  by  the  principal. 

Choosing  and  Stating  a  Subject.  For  practice  in  our 
arguing  it  is  important  that  only  those  subjects  which  are  of 
genuine  interest  to  us  be  chosen.  We  cannot  be  earnest  and 
convincing  if  we  are  arguing  about  a  matter  just  because  it 
is  assigned  to  us.  Whenever  we  have  an  argument  to  pre- 
pare, we  should  think  over  carefully  the  hundreds  of  events 
and  facts  in  which  we  have  a  deep  interest,  and  from  these 
make  a  list  of  subjects  which  we  can  use.  We  must  remem- 
ber, however,  that  for  purposes  of  argument  the  subject 
chosen  should  be  one  on  which  the  opinions  of  people  differ. 

When  a  subject  has  been  chosen,  it  may  be  stated  in 
the  form  of  what  is  called  a  rcsohition,  thus  :  "  Resolved, 
that  this  city  (or  town)  should  establish  a  branch  library," 
The  statement  should  be  so  carefully  expressed  that  its 
meaning  will  be  perfectly  clear. 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Write  resolutions  for  five  of  the  topics  below.  Make  the 
/Statements  brief  and  clear,  and  choose  the  words  carefully,  so 
that  there  will  be  two  sides  to  each  question. 

h.  Read  your  resolutions  in  class,  for  comparison  and  criticism. 

1.  A  new  school  building.  6.   School  lunch  rooms. 

2.  Requiring  girls  to  take  mathe-       7.  Overcrowded  schoolrooms. 

matics.  8.  Overcrowded  street  cars. 

I       3.  Frequent  holidays.  9.  Minimum  age  for  drivers  of 

I       4.  Uniforms  for  school  pupils.  automobiles. 

5.  Military  drill  in  schools.  10.  Newspapers. 


32  ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

2.  Choose  the  subject  which  you  wish  to  use  in  the  exercises 
to  follow.  Choose  also  the  side  of  the  question  you  wish  to  de- 
fend. It  will  be  simpler,  for  beginners,  to  choose  a  resolution 
which  proposes  to  carry  out  some  plan.  Perhaps  it  will  be  well 
if  no  two  students  take  the  same  subject ;  therefore  each  should 
bring  to  class  three  or  more  subjects  from  which  to  choose. 

In  class,  as  each  student  reads  his  subject  the  others  may 
criticize  it  according  to  the  principles  we  have  noted  above. 

Gathering  the  Material.  Having  chosen  the  subject,  our 
next  task  is  to  collect  the  material  for  the  argument.  If 
the  subject  is  a  familiar  one,  much  of  the  material  may  be 
found  within  our  own  minds,  or  within  our  daily  observa- 
tion. But  if  the  subject  requires  some  investigation,  as 
will  almost  always  be  the  case,  then  the  sources  of  infor- 
mation mentioned  in  Chapter  I  will  be  sufficient  for  our 
purposes :  talks  with  well-informed  persons,  and  material 
in  magazines  and  books. 

Let  us  first  write  on  slips  of  paper,  just  as  they  occur  to 
us,  all  facts,  opinions,  and  questions  that  seem  to  have  a 
bearing  on  the  subject.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  we  are 
studying  the  question,  '"  Resolved,  that  the  school  board 
(committee)  should  enlarge  our  school  grounds,"  and  that 
we  have  decided  to  support  the  affirmative  side.  Probably 
some  such  thoughts  as  the  following  will  occur  to  us  : 

POINTS   GAINED    FROM    FIRST   KNOWLEDGE 

1.  The  grounds  are  too  small. 

2.  Small  boys  are  often  hurt. 

3.  There  is  no  room  to  play  baseball. 

4.  The  trees  are  in  the  way. 

5.  With  more  room  we  could  have  a  garden. 


COLLECTING  MATERLAL  33 

6.  We  could  also  have  tennis  courts. 

7.  The  ground  is  now  too  rough  for  games. 

8.  The  gymnasium  classes  ought  to  use  the  grounds. 

9.  Windows  are  sometimes  broken. 

10.  The  adjoining  lot  is  not  in  use. 

11.  The  boys  often  play  in  the  street. 

After  talking  with  teachers  and  parents  about  the  sub- 
ject, we  shall  be  able  to  add  to  our  notes.  Perhaps  we 
may  obtain  some  such  additional  data  as  the  following : 

POINTS   GAINED    FROM    FURTHER   STUDY 

12.  The  school  has  three  times  as  many  pupils  as  it  had  at  first. 

13.  The  manual-training  shops  have  taken  some  of  the  play 
space. 

14.  The  adjoining  land  would  cost  about  six  thousand  dollars. 

15.  The  expense  could  be  provided  for  by  the  next  bond  issue. 

16.  The  pupils  will  ask  their  parents  to  vote  for  the  bonds. 

17.  The  principal  says  that  elementary  agriculture  could  be 
taught. 

18.  It  is  against  the  law  to  play  baseball  in  the  street. 

It  is  evident  that  some  of  these  points  need  further 
investigation  to  determine  if  they  are  true,  and  that  others 
need  the  addition  of  statistics  or  definite  instances  to  make 
them  effective.  We  shall  therefore  wish  to  add  to  our 
material  by  reading.  For  the  present,  however,  we  may 
use  the  points  already  collected,  as  they  are,  and  proceed 
in  the  next  section  to  the  problem  of  arranging  them. 

EXERCISE 

Gather  as  many  points  as  you  can  in  the  time  at  your  disposal 
on  the  particular  subject  which  you  selected  in  the  preceding  exer- 
cise.   First  write  out  those  points  which  you  already  have  in  mind. 


34  ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Next  talk  with  others,  make  further  investigations,  read  on  the 
subject,  and  add  to  your  stock  of  notes.  Try  to  cover  as  many 
ideas  about  the  subject  as  possible.  Bring  the  notes  to  class  so 
that  they  may  be  read  and  criticized. 

Finding  the  Main  Topics.  Now  we  shall  study  the  list 
of  opinions  and  suggestions  thus  far  collected,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  thinking  out  the  main  arguments  to  which  our 
points  naturally  belong.  For  example,  in  our  list  of  topics 
on  the  School  Grounds,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  num- 
bers I,  2,  3,  4,  9,  II,  12,  and  13  help  to  show  that  the 
present  grounds  are  not  satisfactory;  5,  6,  8,  and  17  deal 
with  the  benefits  that  would  result  from  larger  grounds ; 
10,  14,  15,  and  16  refer  to  plans  for  acquiring  the 
grounds;  7  has  no  bearing  on  our  question;  and  18  tells 
an  interesting  fact  about  number  1 1 .  According  to  this 
grouping,  the  main  arguments  may  be  expressed  as  follows  : 

THE   MAIN    POINTS   OF  THE   ARGUMENT 

I.  The  present  yard  is  entirely  too  small. 
II.  Larger  grounds  would  be  very  beneficial  to  the  school. 
III.  The  needed  land  can  be  easily  obtained. 

We  should  always  remember  to  state  these  main  points 
in  complete  sentences.  Further,  we  should  see  that  they 
are  arranged  in  the  best  order.  For  example,  in  the  case 
of  our  three  main  points  above,  it  would  probably  be  better 
to  transpose  II  and  III,  for  the  ways  of  obtaining  the  land 
should  ordinarily  be  discussed  before  the  benefits. 

The  main  points  must  now  be  tested  to  see  if  the  argu- 
ment is  complete.  The  test  is  as  follows  :  Will  these  three 
points,    if  proved,   convince  people   that  the  school  board 


MAKING  THE  OUTLINE  35 

should  enlarge  the  grounds  ?  Are  any  other  points  neces- 
sary to  the  proof  ?  Can  any  of  these  three  be  omitted  ? 
It  will  be  seen  that  our  whole  argument  will  fall  if  any 
one  of  the  three  points  above  is  unproved.  It  is  plain, 
too,  that  no  other  points  are  necessary  to  the  proof.  It 
might  be  stronger  if  we  could  show  that  other  schools  have 
larger  grounds,  and  we  may  add  such  a  main  point  if  we 
wish,  but  it  is  not  a  necessary  argument.  Our  three  points 
are  sufficient. 

It  will  usually  be  found  that  all  the  details  of  the  argu- 
ment can  be  gathered  under  from  three  to  six  main  topics. 

Let  us  now  write  out  the  outline,  giving  the  main  topics 
in  their  natural  order,  and  putting  the  subtopics  in  their 
proper  places. 

PROVISIONAL   OUTLINE 

Resolved,  that  the  school  board  should  enlarge  our  school 
grounds ;   because 

I.  The  present  yard  is  entirely  too  small,  y^-r 

1.  Small  boys  are  often  hurt. 

2.  There  is  no  room  to  play  baseball. 

3.  The  trees  are  in  the  way. 

4.  Windows  are  sometimes  broken. 

5.  The  boys  often  play  in  the  street. 

6.  The  school  has  three  times  as  many  pupils  as  it  had 

at  first. 

7.  The  manual-training  shops  have  taken  away  some  of 

the  play  space. 
II.  The  needed  land  can  be  easily  obtained,  y^r 

1.  The  adjoining  lot  is  not  in  use. 

2.  The  land  would  cost  about  six  thousand  dollars. 

3.  This  could  be  provided  for  by  the  next  bond  issue. 

4.  The  pupils  will  ask  their  parents  to  vote  for  the  bonds. 


36  ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

111.  Larger  grounds  would  be  very  beneficial  to  the  school,  yL'/- 

1.  With  more  room  we  could  have  a  garden. 

2.  We  could  also  have  tennis  courts. 

3.  The  gymnasium  classes  could  use  the  grounds. 

4.  Elementary  agriculture  could  be  taught. 

EXERCISE 

Find  the  main  points  of  your  argument,  using  the  method 
explained  in  the  text  above.  Arrange  these  main  points  in  a 
logical  order.  Then  copy  the  complete  provisional  outline,  put- 
ting the  subtopics  in  their  proper  places.  If  it  is  possible  to 
improve  the  wording,  do  so.  Bring  the  outline  to  class,  to  be 
read  and  criticized. 

Making  the  Final  Outline.  While  we  are  working  out 
the  main  topics  and  making  the  provisional  outline,  we  are 
sure  to  think  of  new  points  which  could  be  used  in  the 
argument.  For  example,  it  may  occur  to  us  that  the  land 
adjoining  the  school  can  be  rented  if  it  cannot  be  bought. 
Moreover,  before  we  make  the  final  outline,  we  shall  need 
to  investigate  further  certain  points  as  suggested  above,  to 
find  out  exact  figures  and  definite  facts.  For  example,  we 
should  tell  how  many  accidents  due  to  overcrowding  there 
have  been  ;  how  many  windows  were  broken  in  a  given  time  ; 
the  exact  number  of  pupils  now  in  the  building,  and  when 
the  school  was  opened  ;  the  actual  cost  of  the  additional 
land.  Further,  we  shall  need  to  enlarge  certain  arguments 
by  adding  subtopics  which  will  illustrate  or  explain  them. 

Having  done  all  that  seems  necessary  in  the  way  of 
completing  our  investigation,  we  may  then  prepare  the 
final  outline.  Our  main  points,  of  course,  will  remain 
unchanged.     The  topics  must  be   arranged   in  a   sensible. 


MAKING  THE  OUTLINE  37 

clear  order  under  each  niain  point.  Let  us  suppose  that 
we  have  enough  material  for  our  argument  on  the  question 
of  school  grounds,  and  that  we  have  arranged  the  sub- 
topics in  a  good  order.  We  may  now  prepare  our  final 
outline,  as  follows  : 

FINAL  OUTLINE 

Resolved,   that   the   school    board    should    enlarge   our   school 
grounds ;  because 

I.  The  present  yard  is  entirely  too  small, _/^r 

1 .  The  yard  is  used  now  by  three  times  as  many  pupils  as 

it  was  six  years  ago,  although  some  space  has  been 
recently  taken  for  a  new  building : 

a.  Enrollment  December,  1908,  225  ;  December,  19 14, 

692. 

b.  Shops  erected  March,  19 12,  on  former  basket-ball 

court. 

2.  There  is  now  no  room  to  play  baseball. 

3.  Boys  frequently  play  in  the  street,  in  spite  of  the  law 

against  it. 

4.  Accidents   sometimes   occur  because  of   the  crowded 

conditions : 

a.  Three  boys  were  knocked  down  last  Thursday. 

b.  Two  windows  were  broken  by  balls  last  week. 
II.  The  needed  land  can  be  easily  obtained,  for 

1.  There  is  an  adjoining  vacant  lot,  200'  by  300'. 

2.  The  owner  will  sell  for  $6100. 

3.  It  can  at  least  be  rented ;  the  rent  is  $30  per  month. 

4.  Bonds  can  be  voted  to  furnish  the  money  ;  pupils  would 

ask  parents  to  vote  for  the  bonds. 
III.  Larger  grounds  would  be  very  beneficial  to  the  S(^\.OQ\for 
I .  There  would  be  more  room  for  play : 

a.  Tennis  courts  could  be  added. 

b.  A  baseball  field  could  be  provided. 

4  2-03  6 


38  ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

2.  The  gymnasium  classes  could  use  the  grounds: 

a.  Open-air  work  is  desirable. 

b.  This  would  not  disturb  other  classes. 

3.  Elementary  agriculture  could  and  should  be  taught : 

a.  Such  courses  are  practical  and  interesting. 

b.  According  to  the  Report  for  19 14  of  the  U.  S.  Com- 

missioner of  Education,  1677  schools  already  teach 
agriculture. 

EXERCISE 

Follow  the  directions  suggested  above,  and  prepare  the  final 
outline  for  your  argument.  Wherever  possible  improve  it  by 
changing  the  form  of  the  sentences  or  the  order  of  the  sub- 
topics.    Bring  the  outline  to  class  to  be  read  and  criticized. 

Practicing  the  Argument.  The  final  outline  should  now 
be  copied  on  slips  of  paper  or  on  cards  which  will  be  con- 
venient to  use  before  the  class.  On  these  should  be  in- 
cluded all  the  subtopics,  and  all  the  facts  and  figures  that 
will  be  needed  in  giving  the  talk.  The  argument  may 
then  be  practiced  from  these  notes,  the  practice  being 
made  as  nearly  as  possible  like  the  actual  talk  before  an 
audience.  Here  we  shall  give  directions  for  the  method  to 
be  followed  in  the  talk,  the  outline  being  used  as  sug- 
gested above  : 

1.  In  opening  your  argument,  state  the  resolution  and  follow 
this  with  the  word  '  because '  and  the  main  reasons,  naming  them 
'  first,'  '  second,'  etc.  For  example,  "  I  maintain  that  the  school 
board  should  enlarge  our  school  grounds ;  because,  first,  the 
present  yard  is  entirely  too  small ;  second,  the  needed  land  can 
be  easily  obtained ;  and  third,  larger  grounds  would  be  very  bene- 
ficial to  the  school."  This  is  a  brief  prospective  summary,  serving 
as  an  introduction  to  open  the  way  for  the  real  argument. 


GIVING  THE  TALK  39 

2.  Now  go  back  to  the  first  main  reason,  and  after  restating 
it,  proceed  to  prove  it  by  means  of  the  subtopics,  ahvays  remem- 
bering to  back  up  these  subtopics  with  the  facts  and  arguments 
at  your  command.  We  may  begin  the  proof  of  the  first  main 
point  as  follows :  "  First,  then,  the  present  yard  is  entirely  too 
small.  Sbc  years  ago,  when  the  school  was  opened,  there  were 
but  225  pupils  in  attendance.  Now  there  are  692.  This  means 
that  the  playground  is  used  by  over  three  times  as  many  children 
as  at  first.  Yet  during  this  time  there  has  been  no  corresponding 
addition  to  the  play  space.  On  the  contrary,  the  grounds  have 
actually  been  diminished  in  size,  for  in, March  of  19 12  the  basket- 
ball court  was  taken  for  the  new  manual-training  shops.  More- 
over, there  is  now  no  place  for  the  boys  to  play  baseball.  Indeed, 
the  present  grounds  are  so  crowded  that  some  of  the  boys  play 
ball  in  the  street  in  front  of  the  school,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  law  forbids  street  games."  Continue  the  argument,  covering 
all  the  points  under  I.  Then  conclude  this  main  point  with  some 
such  statement  as  this :  "  All  these  conditions  show  conclusively 
that  the  present  yard  is  entirely  too  small." 

3.  State  and  prove  the  second  main  point  in  the  same  manner. 
For  example,  "  Second,  the  needed  land  can  be  easily  obtained. 
Adjoining  the  school  is  a  vacant  lot  which  can  be  purchased  for 
$6100;  or  the  owner  stands  ready  to  rent  it  for  $30  per  month. 
The  size  of  this  lot  is — ,"  etc.  After  covering  all  the  arguments 
under  II,  conclude  somewhat  as  follows :  "  Thus,  it  is  clear  that 
the  needed  land  may  be  easily  added  to  the  present  grounds." 

4.  State  and  prove  each  of  the  other  main  points  in  a  simi- 
lar way. 

5.  Finally,  summarize  the  main  points,  and  conclude  with  the 
word  '  therefore '  and  the  statement  of  the  proposition  which  has 
been  proved.  This  conclusion  might  be  expressed  as  follows  :  "  We 
have  seen,  first,  that  the  present  yard  is  entirely  too  small ;  second, 
that  the  needed  land  can  be  easily  obtained ;  and  third,  that  larger 
grounds  would  be  a  great  benefit  to  the  school.  Therefore,  it  is 
clear  that  the  school  board  should  enlarge  our  school  grounds." 


40  ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Copy  the  final  outline  on  slips  of  paper  or  cards.  Use 
marks  in  the  outline,  at  the  proper  places,  to  remind  you  of  the 
fact  that  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  talk  the  main 
points  are  to  be  summarized,  and  that  at  the  end  of  the  proof  for 
each  main  point  a  sentence  restating  that  point  is  to  be  given. 
Practice  the  talk  according  to  the  directions  in  the  text.  Perhaps 
you  can  get  some  friend  to  listen  and  give  you  criticism.  Be  seri- 
ous, businesslike,  and  forceful.  Practice  looking  directly  into  the 
faces  of  your  hearers,  and  try  to  convince  each  one  that  your 
arguments  are  sound.    Give  the  talk  in  class. 

b.  After  your  argument  has  been  given,  perhaps  the  other 
members  of  the  class  will  have  questions  to  ask  or  arguments  to 
make  on  the  other  side  of  the  question.  Listen  to  these  points, 
and  take  notes  as  they  are  given.  After  all  the  pupils  who  wish 
to  speak  on  the  subject  have  taken  part,  choose  several  of  the 
strongest  points  which  have  been  made  and  reply  to  them.  Try 
to  make  every  answer  complete  and  conclusive. 

2.  You  have  now  prepared  and  given  in  class  a  complete  argu- 
ment, and  thus  you  have  learned  a  method  which  can  be  applied 
to  any  argument.  Choose  another  subject,  prepare  the  material 
and  the  outline,  practice  the  talk,  and  deliver  it  in  class. 

A  Debate.  Grammar-school  pupils  have  frequently  given 
excellent  debates,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  any  class  can- 
not arrange  such  a  contest.  We  shall  therefore  state  here, 
briefly,  some  general  directions  for  a  simple  debate. 

There  should  be  two  speakers  on  each  side,  and  the 
points  should  be  divided  judiciously  between  them.  For 
example,  to  take  the  question  already  used  in  the  preced- 
ing section,  the  first  afflrmative  speaker  may  prove  the  first 
main  point,  "  that  the  present  yard  is  too  small "  ;  and  the 
other  affirmative   speaker  may  take   the   other  two  points, 


DEBATING  41 

"that  the  land  can  be  easily  obtained,"  and  "  that  the  larger 
grounds  would  be  beneficial  to  the  school."  Let  us  suppose 
that  after  studying  the  negative  side  of  the  question  we 
should  find  four  main  points,  as  follows:  "first,  the  con- 
gestion is  not  serious  ;  second,  the  pupils  can  use  the  city 
playgrounds ;  third,  it  W'ould  be  unfair  to  other  schools 
which  have  small  grounds ;  and  fourth,  the  money  could 
be  spent  in  better  ways."  Each  of  the  two  speakers  on 
the  negative  side  may  take  two  points. 

For  beginners,  each  talk  may  be  limited  to  five  minutes, 
and  the  final  talk  by  the  affirmative  speaker  to  two  minutes. 
The  speakers  on  each  side  alternate,  and  the  first  affirmative 
speaker  opens  and  closes  the  debate.  But  a  better  plan  will 
be  to  allow  each  debater  two  talks,  the  first  one  for  a  pre- 
pared argument,  and  the  second  for  answering  the  argu- 
ments of  the  other  side.  The  order  of  speaking  should  be 
the  same  for  both  rounds  of  talks,  and  the  first  affirmative 
speaker  will  have  three  appearances.  The  time  allowed  for 
each  of  the  first  speeches  may  be  six  minutes,  for  each  of 
the  second  speeches  three  minutes,  and  for  the  final  speech 
two  minutes. 

When  each  speaker  appears  for  the  first  time,  he  should 
state  the  main  points  of  his  side,  including  both  what  he 
has  proved  or  will  prove,  and  those  assigned  to  his  partner ; 
that  is,  the  hearers  should  be  given  a  summary  of  the  argu- 
ments of  each  side.  It  would  be  well  to  give  this  summary 
both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  each  speech  in  the 
first  round.  The  last  speech  for  each  side  should  conclude 
with  a  summary  of  the  whole  argument. 

The  debater  should  always  listen  to  the  points  of  his 
opponents,  take  n^tes,  and  try  to  give  answers. 


42  ARGUMENT  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Judges  may  be  chosen  as  follows  :  Each  side  selects  one 
student  to  act  as  judge,  and  the  two  judges  thus  chosen 
select  the  third.  At  the  end  of  the  debate  each  judge 
should  write  the  word  '  affirmative  '  or  '  negative '  on  a  slip 
of  paper,  without  consulting  the  other  judges.  Two  votes 
decide.  Judges  should  remember  that  they  are  not  to  vote 
which  side  of  the  question  they  believe  is  right,  but  which 
two  debaters  gave  the  better  argument. 

EXERCISE 

Choose  a  partner  for  a  debate,  and  find  two  other  students  to 
oppose  you.  Then  together  select  a  question.  Decide  and  write 
down  on  paper,  so  that  there  can  be  no  misunderstanding,  all 
such  details  as  the  exact  wording  of  the  question,  the  sides,  the 
time  for  each  talk,  the  number  of  talks,  and  the  date  for  the 
debate.    The  teacher  will  plan  a  schedule  for  the  contests. 

Next,  each  side  should  study  the  question,  gather  material, 
find  the  main  points,  make  the  outline,  divide  the  points,  and 
study  the  arguments  of  the  other  side.  Then  each  speaker  should 
practice  his  part  of  the  argument. 

Below  are  some  sample  questions ;  others  will  be  found  in 
Appendix  II. 

1.  Resolved,  that  this  school  should  adopt  some  form  of  student 
self-government. 

2.  Resolved,  that  smoking  on  street  cars  should  be  prohibited. 

3.  Resolved,  that  all  girls  should  be  required  to  learn  dressmaking 
and  cooking. 

4.  Resolved,  that  boys  should  learn  how  to  cook. 

5.  Resolved,  that  the  schools  should  give  moving-picture  enter- 
tainments. 

6.  Resolved,  that  football  is  a  better  game  than  baseball. 

7.  Resolved,  that  this  city  should  own  and  operate  an  electric- 
lighting  system. 


DEBATING  43 

8.  Resolved,   that  the  school    year   should   be   divided    into   four 
quarters  of  twelve  weeks  each. 

9.  Resolved,  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  has  been  a  benefit  to  the 
United  States. 

10.  Resolved,  that  the  United  States  should  operate  a  line  of  steam- 
ships between  eastern  and  western  seaports,  through  the  Panama  Canal. 

11.  Resolved,  that  students  should  decide  on  their  occupations  be- 
fore they  leave  high  school. 

12.  Resolved,  that  the  President  of  the  United  States  should  call  a 
world  convention  for  the  establishment  of  a  plan  for  universal  peace. 

13.  Resolved,  that  every  girl  should  study  for  an  occupation  other 
than  that  of  a  housewife. 

14.  Resolved,  that  the  milk  supply  should  be  delivered  by  one  central 
agency,  rather  than  by  several  wagons  with  overlapping  routes. 

15.  Resolved,  that  the  Gary  school  plan  should  be  adopted  in  our 
city.    (See  The  Independent  ioi  December  13,  191 5.) 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  SPEAKER'S  APPEARANCE  BEFORE  THE  AUDIENCE 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  the  preparation  and  the 
presentation  of  explanations  and  arguments,  but  in  these 
discussions  Httle  has  been  said  about  the  speaker's  appear- 
ance before  the  audience,  the  use  of  his  voice,  his  use  of 
words,  and  the  other  factors  which  help  to  produce  a  pleas- 
ing effect.  We  shall  consider  some  of  these  matters  in  this 
chapter.  That  the  manner  of  our  speaking  is  important  we 
know,  for  it  is  common  knowledge  that  many  an  unworthy 
business  proposition  and  many  a  mistaken  idea  in  political 
life  have  won  recognition  because  of  clever  presentation, 
while  many  a  worthy  cause  has  failed  for  lack  of  effective 
speakers. 

EXERCISE 

Listen  carefully  to  some  speaker,  preferably  to  one  whom  you 
have  not  heard  before.  Take  notes  if  necessary,  and  come  to 
class  prepared  to  answer  the  following  questions,  and  to  give  the 
reasons  for  your  answers  : 

1.  Was  the  speaker's  subject  matter  well  arranged.'' 

2.  Was  his  manner  pleasing? 

3.  Which  was  the  better,  his  subject  matter  or  his  style  of  delivery  ? 

4.  Would  you  have  been  interested  in  the  subject  matter  of  the 
speech  if  the  speaker's  manner  had  been  poor? 

5.  If  you  knew  the  speaker  well  enough,  what  suggestions  for  im- 
provement could  you  give  him? 

44 


THE  STANDING  POSITION  45 

Repose  before  Speaking.  All  the  recitations  in  Oral 
English  classes  should  be  given  at  the  front  of  the  room. 
When  the  student  is  about  to  speak,  he  should  walk  quietly 
and  naturally  to  that  part  of  the  room,  turn  toward  his 
hearers,  and  look  into  their  faces  an  instant  before  be- 
ginning. If  there  is  a  chairman,  the  student  should  turn 
toward  him  when  giving  his  opening  words.  Many  a  talk 
has  been  spoiled  by  the  speaker's  standing  so  far  back  from 
his  audience  that  all  could  not  hear  him.  Therefore,  if  the 
student  is  to  speak  on  a  stage,  he  s-hould  come  well  forward. 

If  the  speaker  is  to  be  introduced  to  the  audience,  he 
should  sit  at  ease  while  waiting.  Judgment  is  often  passed 
upon  a  person  before  he  begins  to  talk,  and- even  before  he 
rises.  Awkwardness  in  the  chair,  nervousness,  and  stiffness 
are  quickly  noted  and  remembered  against  him.  Poise,  ease, 
and  naturalness  all  influence  the  audience  favorably.  This 
kind  of  prejudging  is  not  fair  to  the  speaker,  but  is 
common,  and  he  must  make  the  best  of  it  by  trying  to 
win  the  good  will  of  the  audience  from  the  first  moment 
that  he  appears  before  it. 

Standing  Positions.  Keep  a  natural  standing  position 
during  the  speech.  A  successful  singer  has  said  that  while 
singing  he  has  the  feeling  that  his  chest  is  extended  for- 
ward and  upward.  This  position  gives  erectness  and  free- 
dom. If  the  speaker  is  much  in  earnest,  his  body  will  tend 
to  incline  toward  his  hearers  rather  than  to  shrink  from 
them.  In  a  short  speech,  unless  he  is  talking  quite  infor- 
mally to  a  small  group,  he  will  stand  with  the  weight  upon 
both  feet.  In  a  long  talk  he  will  use  a  variety  of  positions, 
all  easily  assumed  and  easily  held.  He  will  make  the 
changes  from  one  position  to  another  as  he  goes  from  one 


46  APPEARANCE  BEFORE  THE  AUDIENCE 

division  of  his  speech  to  another,  or  as  he  gives  special 
emphasis  to  certain  ideas.  And  finally,  he  will  do  all  these 
things  unconsciously,  either  because  they  come  to  him  natu- 
rally or  because  he  has  practiced  them  so  faithfully  that  they 
have  become  fixed  habits. 

Avoiding  a  Support.  Certain  bad  habits  common  to 
careless  speakers  should  be  guarded  against ;  for  example, 
leaning  over  a  table  or  chair  or  pulpit  as  one  talks.  There 
is  no  objection  to  such  an  attitude  sometimes ;  and  there 
may  be  occasions  where  such  a  position  can  be  maintained 
naturally  throughout  a  talk.  These  occasions  are  rare,  how- 
ever, and  a  student  should  not  deliberately  grow  to  need 
such  a  support.  In  his  practice,  therefore,  he  should  learn 
to*  be  completely  self-sustaining.  It  is  good  training  for  one 
to  have  to  come  into  full-length  view  of  an  audience,  with 
no  object  within  reach. 

Controlling  the  Feet  and  Hands.  Poor  control  of  the  feet 
spoils  many  speeches.  Listeners  cannot  follow  ideas,  no 
matter  how  attractively  expressed,  if  they  are  made  conscious 
of  the  nervous  movement  of  the  speaker's  feet.  Nervous- 
ness may  show  itself  in  a  quick,  jerky  twitching  of  the  feet, 
a  repeated  rising  to  the  toes  for  no  reason,  a  pendulum-like 
swinging  of  the  body  as  the  weight  changes  from  one  foot 
to  the  other,  or  a  settling  down  on  one  foot  with  the  other 
awkwardly  placed  in  front.  To  recover  from  these  habits 
one  must  remember  that  there  is  no  sense  or  reason  in 
such  awkwardness ;  the  feet  behave  at  other  times,  and 
there  is  no  need  for  misplaced  activities  now. 

The  speaker  must  not  finger  the  clothing,  nor  the  knife 
and  fork  if  he  is  conversing  at  the  table.  He  must  not 
look  at  the  notes    in    his    hand   at   times  when   it  is   not 


THE  STANDING  POSITION  47 

necessary.  Let  the  body's  activity  be  confined  to  the  voice, 
face,  and  arms,  and  let  motions  that  interfere  with  the 
object  in  view  be  ruled  out.  The  speaker  may  practice 
at  home  alone  or  with  friends ;  then  he  may  extend  the 
confidence  and  control  there  gained  to  talks  before  larger 
groups,  until  success  is  won. 

After  the  Talk.  When  the  talk  is  finished,  the  speaker 
must  not  let  his  self-possession  and  ease  fail  him.  He  must 
close  the  talk  with  assurance,  and  without  a  suggestion  of 
retiring  to  his  seat.  With  the  speech  ended,  the  withdrawal 
comes  —  a  step  or  two  backward,  an  easy  turn,  and  a 
dignified  walk  to  the  seat. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  a  short  talk,  perhaps  on  a  spbject  which  you  have 
discussed  before,  and  pay  particular  attention  to  the  following 
matters : 

1.  Select  the  best  place  to  stand. 

2.  Stand  erect. 

3.  Lean  forward  slightly. 

4.  Keep  the  weight  upon  both  feet. 

5.  Pause  a  moment  before  beginning  to  speak. 

2.  Let  several  students  prepare  a  talk  on  any  topic  that  inter- 
ests them,  and  let  four  or  five  others  sit  in  chairs  at  the  front 
of  the  room.  One  student  may  act  as  chairman,  and  briefly  intro- 
duce each  speaker.    Give  attention  to  the  following : 

1.  Sit  at  ease. 

2.  Walk  to  the  position  for  speaking  with  promptness  and  ease. 

3.  Pause,  facing  the  audience,  before  speaking. 

4.  Address  the  chairman. 

5.  Change  your  position  once  or  twice  during  the  speech. 

6.  After  the  speech,  return  easily  to  your  seat. 


48  APPEARANCE  BEFORE  THE  AUDIENCE 

How  Gestures  Aid.  The  hands  are  very  expressive.  In 
many  cases,  as  for  example  in  making  a  diagram,  in  pre- 
senting a  gift,  in  demonstrating  the  appHcation  of  a  furni- 
ture polish,  the  speaker  naturally  and  inevitably  uses  his 
hands.  In  fact  in  almost  every  kind  of  speech  the  hands 
take  some  part,  either  in  actually  doing  things  or  in  mak- 
ing gestures  which  help  to  emphasize  the  spoken  words. 
For  example,  such  talks  as  the  following  would  certainly  be 
better  with  the  hands  in  use  than  with  them  passive  :  a 
description  of  a  wireless  station,  the  story  of  a  boat  race, 
the  explanation  of  the  process  by  which  coal  is  mined,  the 
introduction  of  a  speaker.  Almost  never  is  a  speech  as 
effective  as  possible  if  the  speaker  makes  no  use  of  his 
hands. 

In  the  speeches  we  have  mentioned  above,  probably  no 
student  would  find  it  difficult  to  use  appropriate  gestures. 
The  hand  movements  would  be  almost  spontaneous.  In  the 
case  of  some  other  speeches,  however,  particularly  those 
which  deal  with  opinions  rather  than  with  facts,  the  begin- 
ner may  find  difficulty.  This  is  especially  true  of  argument ; 
yet  gestures  should  usually  be  used  in  arguing.  Imagine  a 
man  speaking  very  earnestly,  with  his  hands  quietly  at  his 
side !  Because  the  student  also  must  be  enthusiastic  in  his 
arguments,  he  should  use  his  hands  ;  and  if  he  succeeds 
in  argumentative  gestures,  he  will  have  little  difficulty  with 
simple  gestures  in  explanations,  narrations,  and  descriptions. 
We  shall  therefore  put  the  emphasis  upon  gesture  as  used 
in  argument. 

Practicing  Gestures.  How  shall  you  begin  ?  Prepare  a 
talk  on  a  subject  about  which  you  hold  a  decided  opinion. 
Find  some  room  where  you  will  not  be  disturbed,  and  there 


USING  GESTURES  "    49 

give  your  argument.  Talk  to  an  imaginar}^  opponent,  har- 
angtringTiimin  over-enthusiastic  style,  and  as  you  speak, 
use  your  hands.  Such  a  proceeding  may  seem  ridiculous 
at  first,  but  if  you  persist  \ou  will  find  that  you  are  gradu- 
ally acquiring  the  spontaneous  use  of  your  hands  as  you 
talk,  and  that  some  of  the  gestures  are  good.  More  impor- 
tant still,  you  will  obtain  a  new  confidence  in  yourself  and 
in  your  ability  to  appear  well  before  an  audience. 

Helpful  Criticism.  Next,  get  criticism.  The  looking- 
glass  — ■  the  larger  the  better  —  will  show  certain  faults  in 
your  movements.  Some  gestures  will  seem  awkward,  and 
must  either  be  improved  or  discarded.  Some  will  be  ill- 
timed,  like  a  false  alarm,  and  must  not  be  used  unless  they 
accompany  a  more  appropriate  idea.  Since  gestures  are 
used  to  enforce  ideas,  if  a  commonplace  statement  is  accom- 
panied by  an  extraordinary  gesture  the  effect  is  the  reverse 
of  what  is  desired.  Again,  good  gestures  may  be  repeated 
too  often.  The  frequent  use  of  the  same  gesture  is  espe- 
cially objectionable  if  that  gesture  is  an  emphatic  one.  A 
powerful  movement  could  seldom  be  used  appropriately 
more  than  once  or  twice  in  a  speech,  while  a  simple  one 
may  recur  many  times.  The  looking-glass  or  a  critical 
friend  will  be  the  judge. 

After  a  little  home  practice  the  student  should  make  use 
of  gestures  in  his  class  talks,  so  that  he  may  be  helped  by 
the  criticisms  of  his  classmates. 

Good  Judgment  in  the  Use  of  Gestures.  The  practice  just 
outlined  will  start  the  student  in  using  his  hands  in  speak- 
ing, and  as  a  result  he  will  know  how  to  make  at  least 
three  or  four  good  gestures.  Good  judgment,  however, 
needs  to  be  exercised  constantly.    The  student  should  never 


50   -      APPEARANCE  BEFORE  THE  AUDIENCE 

use  gestures  merely  for  the  sake  of  gesturing,  at  least  not 
in  a  dignified  speech  in  public.  He  must  remember,  too, 
that  gesticulation,  however  appropriate,  can  never  make  up 
for  deficiencies  in  subject  matter :  at  best  it  can  only  add  to 
the  attractiveness  of  the  presentation.  He  must  not  allow 
the  swing  of  his  arms  and  the  appeal  of  his  hands  to  hyp- 
notize him  into  thinking  that  a  poor  speech  is  a  good  one 
because  it  is  adorned  with  gestures. 

Further,  gesticulation  in  any  speech  must  be  begun  with 
moderation.  No  speech,  however  earnestly  given,  should  be- 
gin with  extraordinary  action.  Simple  and  restricted  move- 
ments of  the  hands  and  arms  should  be  used  at  first ;  the 
hearers  must  be  interested  and  made  ready  for  enthusiastic 
speaking  before  the  appearance  of  the  sweeping  gestures. 

As  between  too  much  and  too  little  gesturing,  we  should 
always  choose  the  latter.  Nothing,  perhaps,  makes  a  speaker 
more  tiresome  than  a  continual  use  of  the  hands.  No  speech 
requires  constant  gesturing.  Another  tiresome  habit  is  that 
of  representing  ideas  by  gestures  ;  for  example,  a  rainbow 
by  a  sweep  through  the  air,  generosity  by  the  open  hand, 
or  an  expression  like  "  His  schooling  was  cut  off "  by  a 
chopping-like  motion.  Such  gesturing  should  be  entirely 
avoided. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  control  of  the  hands  when 
they  are  not  used  in  gesturing.  There  are  times  when  even 
a  slight  movement  would  weaken  the  effect  of  a  serious 
statement  or  a  touching  sentiment.  The  gestures  of  a  rest- 
less person  annoy  the  audience.  Study  the  use  of  the  hands 
made  by  successful  speakers,  and  learn  what  to  avoid  and 
what  to  cultivate. 


THE  FACE  AND  EYES  51 

EXERCISES 

1.  Look  over  the  list  of  topics  at  the  end  of  Chapter  I,  and 
select  one  which  seems  to  have  possibilities  for  gesturing.  For 
this  exercise  gesturing  means  more  than  making  drawings  and 
handling  objects ;  it  means  free  use  of  the  hands.  Practice  the 
speech  at  home,  and  come  prepared  to  give  it  in  class.  Do  not 
be  discouraged  if  gesturing  is  difficult  for  you :  at  least  you  can 
practice  faithfully  at  home,  and  make  an  effort  in  class,  even  if 
you  are  but  moderately  successful.  Try  to  make  a  definite  gain 
over  your  previous  ability. 

2.  Select  an  argumentative  subject  about  which  you  can  be- 
come enthusiastic :  an  athletic  question,  perhaps,  or  a  question  of 
school  policy,  an  argument  for  a  city  improvement,  or  a  political 
question.  Practice  at  home,  using  the  hands,  until  the  gestures 
seem  good.  Ask  one  of  your  classmates  to  listen  to  your  speech 
and  criticize  your  use  of  gestures.    Then  give  the  speech  in  class. 

3.  Give  a  brief  argument  in  class  —  one  into  which  you  can  put 
some  enthusiasm.  Begin  the  speech  with  gestures  which  involve 
only  one  hand,  and  gradually  increase  the  force  of  your  argument 
and  the  scope  of  your  gestures,  until  both  arms  come  into  free  use. 

The  Facial  Expression.  If  the  speaker  presents  a  dignified 
and  natural  appearance  to  the  audience,  his  speech  receives 
a  more  favorable  hearing  than  it  would  otherwise.  A  sincere, 
pleasant  countenance  and  a  direct  look  also  help  to  make  a 
talk  more  attractive.  The  student  must  therefore  study  the 
management  of  face  and  eyes,  so  that  both  as  he  walks  up 
to  take  his  place  before  the  audience  and  as  he  begins  his 
speech,  he  may  help  to  create  an  atmosphere  of  good  will. 

Manifesting  Self-Control.  The  speaker's  mental  poise 
should  be  manifest  in  his  expression.  His  face  may  show 
confidence,  pleasure,  and  earnestness,  for  all  these  qualities 


52    APPEARANCE  BEFORE  THE  AUDIENCE 

will  appeal  to  an  audience.  The  feelings  must  be  under 
such  control,  however,  that  confidence  does  not  become 
conceit,  nor  pleasure  silliness,  nor  earnestness  vehemence. 
Any  sign  of  self-esteem,  self-consciousness,  carelessness, 
foolishness,  disappointment,  peevishness,  disrespect,  ridi- 
cule, scorn,  or  anger  is  sure  to  interfere  with  what  the 
speaker  is  tr)dng  to  say,  and  with  the  meaning  he  wishes 
to  convey  to  the  hearers. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  a  student  is  speaking  in  favor 
of  adopting  a  system  of  self-government  in  his  school,  and 
an  opponent  has  intimated  that  the  only  persons  who  ad- 
vocate the  proposed  plan  are  those  who  have  had  difficul- 
ties with  their  teachers.  What  shall  be  the  expression  on 
the  speaker's  face  as  he  rises  to  answer  ?  It  is  evident 
that  a  careless  laugh,  a  sneer,  or  a  scowl  might  lead  the 
audience  to  think  that  the  statement  were  true  of  the 
speaker  himself.  The  reply  would  better  be  accompanied 
by  a  pleasant  smile,  if  it  is  intended  to  show  that  the 
accusations  are  not  true,  or  by  a  look  of  serious  deter- 
mination if  it  is  to  be  admitted  that  there  is  dissatisfaction 
with  some  of  the  rules  of  the  school  but  that  such  dissatis- 
faction may  be  avoided  by  the  plan  advocated.  Thus  the 
debater  would  have  his  thoughts  under  good  control,  and 
would  inspire  confidence  in  his  hearers. 

The  student  must  not  let  bashfulness  or  nervousness  or 
fear  that  the  hearers  will  laugh  keep  him  from  earnestness  of 
manner  when  the  occasion  demands  it.  His  hearers  will  usu- 
ally meet  him  with  the  kind  of  thoughts  he  brings  to  them. 

The  speaker  must  restrain  himself  from  emphasizing 
points  by  bobbing  the  head,  a  habit  which  easily  becomes 
ridiculous.    He  must  also  guard  against  a  stiff-necked  habit. 


THE  FACE  AND  EYES  53 

Looking  at  Persons  in  the  Audience.  It  is  a  fact  that  if 
a  speaker  seems  to  talk  first  to  one  individual  and  then  to 
another  in  the  audience,  all  the  listeners  feel  that  they  are 
being  addressed.  But  if  the  speaker  is  looking  at  no  one 
in  particular,  then  everybody  feels  himself  left  out.  The 
student  should  not  deceive  himself  into  thinking  that  he 
can  get  good  results  in  speaking  if  he  avoids  looking 
directly  into  the  faces  of  persons  before  him. 

No  speaker  can  expect  his  points  to  reach  their  mark 
unless  he  aims  them.  Imagine  a  "person  trying  to  collect 
a  bill  from  another  without  looking  at  him.  This  ability 
to  look  directly  and  steadily  into  a  person's  face  is  needed 
both  for  speaking  and  for  listening.  In  classes  in  Oral 
English  persistent  attention  should  be  given  to  the  culti- 
vation of  this  habit.  There  is  little  opportunity  for  this 
in  recitations  where  students  recite  at  their  seats,  and  as  a 
result,  young  people  often  talk  exclusively  to  the  teacher, 
or  let  their  eyes  wander  about  carelessly.  As  listeners, 
they  have  no  practice  in  looking  at  a  speaker,  except  when 
the  teacher  is  talking.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  talks  in  Oral 
English  classes  should  be  given  facing  the  audience. 

A  speaker  has  much  to  gain  by  using  his  eyes  wisely. 
All  experienced  speakers  testify  to  the  stimulation  which 
comes  from  the  faces  of  attentive  listeners.  By  looking 
at  his  hearers,  the  speaker  may  tell  how  his  speech  is 
being  received :  what  points  puzzle  or  antagonize,  and 
therefore  need  more  explanation ;  what  effect  is  being 
made  by  his  gestures ;  and  whether  or  not  he  is  talking 
too  fast.  What  can  a  speaker  possibly  gain  by  looking  at 
the  floor,  or  at  the  wall,  or  at  the  ceiling,  or  at  the  desk, 
or  out  of  the  window .? 


54  APPEARANCE  BEFORE  THE  AUDIENCE 

How  can  a  speaker  make  his  listeners  feel  that  he  is 
looking  at  each  one  ?  Probably  the  best  way  with  a  large 
audience  is  to  direct  the  eyes  toward  the  center  of  the 
house,  and  then  to  look  successively  from  one  person  to 
another.  He  should  not  talk  exclusively  to  one  or  two, 
neither  should  he  change  too  rapidly  from  one  person  to 
another.  He  should  direct  his  talk  for  a  few  moments  to 
each  of  as  many  different  persons  as  possible.  Some  good 
speakers  make  it  a  practice  to  speak  successively  to  each 
section  of  the  audience  ;  others,  in  order  to  be  heard  well, 
talk  to  persons  in  the  extreme  rear.  In  a  small  group  one 
may  easily  look  at  individuals  in  all  parts  of  the  audience. 

The  Use  of  Notes.  Few  persons  object  to  the  use  of 
brief  notes  in  the  ordinary  talk.  Notes  show  careful  prepa- 
ration and  a  desire  to  avoid,  on  the  one  hand,  a  senseless 
memorization,  and  on  the  other,  a  wandering  from  the 
subject.  Care  must  always  be  taken,  however,  to  see  that 
neither  the  size  of  the  papers  nor  the  manner  of  using 
them  attracts  attention. 

Large  sheets  of  paper  should  never  be  brought  before 
an  audience  unless  they  are  original  copies  of  letters  or 
other  documents.  The  paper  or  cards  used  for  the  outline 
of  a  talk  should  not  be  larger  than  four  inches  by  six 
inches,  and  for  most  occasions  three  by  four  inches  would 
be  better. 

The  notes  need  never  be  concealed,  but  they  should  be 
used  as  sparingly  as  possible.  To  this  end  they  must  be 
written  plainly.  Typewritten  or  printed  notes  are  best. 
Those  made  in  pencil  or  red  ink  are  hard  to  read  by 
artificial  light.  If  the  cards  are  well  made  and  well  studied, 
a  glance  now  and  then  will  give  all  the  help  needed.    The 


THE  FACE  AND  EYES  55 

notes  should  be  raised  slightly  each  time,  so  that  the  face 
need  not  be  lowered,  and  should  be  held  in  one  hand  natu- 
rally when  not  in  use.  In  most  cases  the  glance  at  the 
notes  may  be  taken  in  one  of  the  natural  pauses  of  the 
speech.  The  student  must  not  try  to  drive  home  an  im- 
portant point  and  at  the  same  time  study  the  notes  for 
the  next  point.  The  audience  needs  the  speaker's  eyes, 
and  the  important  point  needs  the  speaker's  full  attention. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Come  to  class  prepared  to  give  a  short  talk  upon  a  subject 
of  your  own  choosing.  In  giving  the  speech,  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to  making  your  facial  expression  pleasing. 

2.  Come  to  class  prepared  to  give  a  short  argument,  express- 
ing great  earnestness,  with  strong  disapproval  of  opposing  ideas. 
Make  the  facial  expression  earnest,  but  do  not  scowl  or  frown. 

3.  Select  an  argumentative  subject  about  which  untrue  and 
perhaps  unfair  statements  might  be  made.  Select  one  such  state- 
ment to  answer.  Tell  the  audience  what  it  is,  and  proceed  to 
reply  to  it.  Assume  no  vindictiveness  of  manner  or  of  visage, 
but  calmly  and  pleasantly  show  that  the  opinion  is  based  upon 
a  misapprehension  of  the  facts. 

4.  Select  one  statement  which  seems  to  be  in  conflict  with  an 
opinion  you  hold,  but  which  is  true.  Give  the  statement  to  the 
audience,  and  then  proceed  to  make  a  dignified,  serious  answer, 
in  which  you  admit  the  truth  of  the  statement,  but  show  that 
other  considerations  make  it  inconclusive. 

5.  Prepare  to  give  a  talk  on  a  current  topic  or  other  subject. 
iJu  not  use  notes.  As  you  speak,  look  frankly  and  squarely  into 
the  faces  of  as  many  persons,  one  after  another,  as  possible.  Do 
not  let  your  eyes  move  too  rapidly,  however.  After  your  talk  ask 
all  those  who  are  certain  that  you  looked  at  them  to  hold  up 
their  hands.    Note  whether  your  attention  was  well  distributed. 


56  APPEARANCE  BEFORE  THE  AUDIENCE 

Repeat  this  exercise  until  the  eyes  are  trained  to  look  at  indi- 
viduals in  the  audience. 

6.  Arrange  a  conversation  between  yourself  and  a  classmate 
and  give  it  in  class.  Look  each  other  in  the  face  except  when 
consulting  papers  or  other  objects  necessary  to  the  conversation. 

7.  Give  in  class  a  speech  which  requires  the  use  of  notes. 
Have  the  notes  on  slips  of  paper  or  cards  not  larger  than  three 
inches  by  four.    Pay  attention  to  the  following  considerations : 

1.  Hold  the  notes  in  view  when  you  walk  to  your  place. 

2.  When  they  are  about  to  be  used,  raise  them  high  enough  to 
avoid  bending  the  head  to  look  at  them. 

3.  Hold  them  with  one  hand  most  of  the  time. 

4.  Look  at  them  only  when  necessary,  and  make  each  glance  as 
brief  as  possible. 

5.  In  most  cases  look  at  them  only  during  pauses,  giving  your  eyes 
to  your  hearers  while  you  are  speaking. 


CHAPTER   IV 
IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 

W^ords  are  the  elements  which  we  put  together  to  express 
ideas.  The  longer  we  study  and  the  more  we  read  and 
think,  the  more  we  shall  need  significant  and  precise  words 
to  express  our  thoughts.  With  a  limited  vocabulary  we 
shall  often  be  embarrassed  because  of  the  lack  of  the 
right  word  in  our  conversation.  Uninteresting  talkers 
usually  belong  to  one  of  three  groups:  (i)  those  who  are 
careless  in  pronunciation  or  articulation  or  both  ;  (2)  those 
who  have  only  a  small  stock  of  words  at  their  command  ; 
(3)  those  who  have  few  ideas.  Since  the  aim  of  our  school 
work  is  to  expand  and  develop  our  ideas  and  to  help  us 
express  these  clearly  and  attractively,  we  shall  here  con- 
sider how  we  may  improve  our  speech  and  increase  our 
vocabulary. 

Pronunciation.  No  word  is  a  part  of  a  person's  speaking 
vocabulary  unless  it  can  be  correctly  pronounced,  clearly 
enunciated,  and  correctly  used  in  sentences.  Slovenly  pro- 
nunciation must  be  avoided,  and  may  be  corrected  by  culti- 
vating the  habit  of  accuracy.  We  must  first  know  what  is 
the  correct  pronunciation  of  a  word  before  we  can  speak 
it  properly,  and  we  can  acquire  distinctness  of  enunciation 
only  by  a  proper  use  of  the  lips  and  tongue.  '  Singin'  '  for 
'singing,'  'feller'  for  'fellow,'  '  sor '  for  'saw,'  are  often 
due  to  lip  and  tongue  laziness.    Accuracy  of  pronunciation 

57 


58 


IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 


comes  from  an  interest  in  taking  care,  an  interest  which  it 
is  hoped  may  be  aroused  by  the  considerations  which  follow. 

The  pupil  should  familiarize  himself  with  the  marks  com- 
monly used  by  the  dictionaries  to  show  the  sounds  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  For  convenience  in  use  they  have 
been  put  into  Table  D  in  Appendix  VI.  These  marks 
should  be  used  in  making  a  memorandum  of  words  the 
pronunciation  of  which  has  for  any  reason  proved  trouble- 
some. When  making  note  of  new  or  mispronounced  words, 
the  pupil  should  respell  each  one,  separating  it  into  its 
proper  syllables,  marking  the  sounds  of  the  letters  when 
necessary,  and  indicating  the  accent. 

The  only  guide  to  pronunciation  that  is  always  reliable  is 
a  recognized  unabridged  dictionary.  Every  person  should 
speedily  make  intimate  acquaintance  with  one  such  diction- 
ary and  consult  it  about  all  words  that  present  problems 
of  any  kind. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Practice  pronouncing  correctly  the  following  words,  and 
come  to  class  prepared  to  use  any  or  all  of  them  in  sentences : 


accept 

several 

library 

chimney 

except 

sword 

isolated 

again 

instead 

partner 

regular 

geography 

advise 

laboratory 

often 

history 

advice 

interesting 

government 

aeroplane 

catch 

apparatus 

generally 

aviator 

kept 

presentation 

horizon 

oasis 

influence 

statistics 

idea 

financier 

address 

theater 

athletic 

cucumber 

across 

toward 

Italian 

furniture 

get 

February 

literature 

inquiry 

genuine 

forehead 

probably 

blacking 

since 

perhaps 

maybe 

whether 

PRONUNCIATION 


59 


2.  Practice  carefully  the  pronunciation  of  the  words  listed  be- 
low. Then  practice  reading"  a  short  article  of  your  own  selection. 
Read  it  in  class,  making  every  syllable  stand  out  clearly. 


coming 

saying 

borrow 

burrow 

going 

playing 

window 

mellow 

doing 

nothing 

sorrow 

follow 

being 

jumping 

to-morrow 

hollow 

ringing 

something 

yellow 

wallow 

3.  The  words  listed  below  may  be  pronounced  in  more  than 
one  way.  If  time  and  opportunity  permit,  study  the  pronunciations 
as  given  in  the  unabridged  editions  of  three  dictionaries.  In  any 
case  consult  one  dictionary,  and  make  memoranda  of  the  author- 
ized pronunciations.  Use  the  words  in  sentences,  giving  the  pro- 
nunciation which  you  prefer. 


access 

cruse 

juvenile 

reptile 

acoustic 

depot 

mamma 

sardine 

advertisement 

detail 

mistletoe 

scenic 

amateur 

either 

mobilization 

series 

apricot 

epoch 

neither 

servile 

banana 

every 

oasis 

simultaneous 

blouse 

franchise 

organization 

solder 

clarinet 

gooseberry 

patent 

survey 

combat 

hover 

pianist 

tomato 

comrade 

humor 

prelude 

virile 

Adding  New  Words.  Not  only  must  a  student  study  to 
make  the  pronunciation  of  the  words  already  in  his  vocabulary 
correct  and  distinct,  but  he  must  also  appropriate  new  words. 
One  who  is  standing  still  mentally  may  get  along  with  only 
a  few  hundred  words,  but  a  person  of  widening  experience 
and  deep  human  interests  will  need  several  thousand. 

The  average  person  acquires  new  words  only  by  having 
them  forced  into  his  consciousness.    Perhaps  he  is  reading 


6o  IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 

an  article  which  he  wishes  to  understand,  and  finds  a  strange 
word.  He  must  either  go  to  the  dictionary  or  ask  some 
friend  to  help  him  out.  Again,  perhaps  he  is  listening  to 
a  political  speech,  and  not  knowing  the  meaning  of  some 
expression  used  by  the  speaker,  asks  his  neighbor  to  explain 
it  to  him.  Later,  in  telling  about  the  article,  or  in  arguing 
the  political  question  with  a  friend,  he  may  find  it  neces- 
sary to  use  the  unfamiliar  term,  and  thus  the  word  becomes 
a  part  of  his  vocabulary. 

Such  a  person  increases  his  vocabulary  only  under  com- 
pulsion, and  thus  the  permanent  acquisition  of  each  new 
word  is  dependent  upon  the  repeated  occurrence  of  the 
need  for  it.  In  contrast  with  this  method,  or  lack  of 
method,  is  the  systematic  manner  in  which  an  earnest  stu- 
dent deliberately  tries  to  increase  his  stock  of  words.  As 
he  reads  letters,  newspapers,  magazines,  or  books,  he  writes 
down  usable  new  words  on  slips  of  paper  or  in  a  notebook. 
He  also  makes  a  memorandum  of  spoken  words  that  are 
new  to  him.  By  the  aid  of  these  he  studies  the  meanings 
and  uses  of  new  words.  And  finally,  he  makes  it  a  point 
in  writing  and  in  speaking  to  use  each  word  often  enough 
to  make  it  completely  his  own. 

If  the  student  will  follow  some  such  plan  as  this,  he  will 
acquire  great  power  in  effective  expression.  If  he  will  only 
appropriate  some  words  that  are  new  to  him  in  each  day's 
lessons,  he  will  be  sure  to  make  great  strides  forward.  He 
will  be  surprised  to  find  how  soon  a  word  so  recorded  and 
practiced  becomes  his  own.  As  he  makes  each  of  the  new 
words  a  part  of  his  speaking  vocabulary,  it  may  be  canceled 
from  his  list. 


NEW  WORDS 


6i 


EXERCISES 

1.  Listen  carefully  to  a  speech  in  the  school  auditorium,  or  to 
some  other  talk  by  an  experienced  speaker,  and  note  the  words 
that  you  do  not  have  in  your  speaking  vocabulary.  Select  from 
these  ten  good  words  which  you  think  are  new  to  most  of  your 
classmates,  and  come  to  class  prepared  to  pronounce,  define,  and 
use  all  of  them  in  sentences. 

2.  The  lists  of  words  given  below  are  worth  knowing.  Study 
them  to  see  which  you  already  use  commonly.  Then  note  those 
with  which  you  are  not  thoroughly  acquainted,  and  prepare  to 
pronounce,  define,  and  use  in  sentences  all  these  words  or  as 
many  of  them  as  the  teacher  may  think  best.  If  any  of  the 
terms  have  more  than  one  meaning,  try  to  use  them  so  as  to 
show  all  the  meanings. 


1.  abnormally       2. 

affability 

3.  apologetic       4. 

authentic 

abrogate 

agitated 

apparatus 

authoritative 

absolutely 

alibi 

appearance 

ban 

accurately 

alien 

applicable 

benevolent 

acquaint 

allegation 

appropriate 

Biblical 

acquiescence 

allegorical 

aptitude 

blarney 

adequately 

allied 

aqueous 

cataclysm 

admirable 

alternate 

aristocratic 

chronological 

admittance 

annihilate 

astronomical 

circumlocution 

adult 

antipathy 

atmospheric 

coercion 

5.  commend          6. 

defection 

7.   duplicity          8. 

extirpate 

competence 

deficit 

draught 

extricate 

competitive 

deprecatory 

ebullition 

fabulous 

compunction 

destined 

engrossed 

fallacious 

conflagration 

deterioration 

enormous 

farcical 

congratulatory 

dexterous 

era 

fictitious 

contestants 

discrepancy 

erring 

financier 

contour 

discretion 

expunge 

fortitude 

crux 

dishonorable 

exquisite 

fortuitous 

culinary 

disquietude 

extraordinary 

frank 

62 


IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 


9.  gentility 
gigantic 
grandiose 
grievously 
heed 

Herculean 
hospitable 
humility 
hypocrisy 
hypothesis 

13.  monsieur 
multiplicity 
mystery 
necessarily 
negotiate 
numerical 
obliquity 
ominous 
ordeal 
ordinance 

17.  sovereignty 
spontaneity 
stirring 
strenuous 
structure 
sublime 
subsequent 
substantiate 
subvert 
succinct 


10.  ignition 

immediately 

inaugurated 

incalculable 

incomparable 

indefatigable 

indisputably 

indissoluble 

indubitable 

inevitable 

14.   palatable 
participant 
patent 
patriot 
peremptorily 
perpetuity 
precedence 
precipitate 
prestige 
preventative 

18.  sufferance 
suitable 
sumptuous 
sundry 

superabundant 
superfluous 
superintend 
supersede 
supreme 
sustained 


11.  inexplicable  12.  jurisdiction 


infamous 

innocuous 

innovation 

innumerable 

inquiiy 

institution 

interminable 

intolerable 

involuntary 

15.   prodigy 
puissant 
qualm 
quandary 
quietus 
remedial 
remit 

remonstrate 
residual 
revery 

19.  symmetry 
taboo 
taciturn 
temporarily 
tenacious 
travesty 
tremendous 
ubiquitous 
uniformity 
uproar 


kernel 

lamentable 

latitude 

longevity 

longing 

magnanimity 

metropolis 

mischievous 

momentarily 

16.  ruinous 
rustic 
sagacious 
salvage 
satisfaction 
schedule 
secondary 
serviceable 
severity 
simulate 

20.  utility 
vagary 
veracious 
versus 
vituperation 
vociferous 
warrant 
withstand 
wrangle 


wry 

3.  In  some  good  essay  or  article  find  ten  words  new  to  your 
speaking  vocabulary  and  that  of  your  classmates.  Be  prepared  to 
pronounce,  define,  and  use  them. 

Developing  Fluency.  Clear,  accurate,  and  rapid  thinking 
is  the  first  requisite  for  fluency  of  speaking.  A  large  vo- 
cabulary is  also  indispensable,  but  the  fluent  speaker  must 


ACQUIRING  FLUENCY  63 

have  more  than  a  mere  knowledge  of  words  ;  he  must  have 
the  famiharity  which  comes  from  continued  use.  Patient 
practice  in  speal^ing  will  enable  the  student  to  command 
the  right  words  at  the  instant  they  are  needed. 

The  Use  of  Synonyms  and  Equivalent  Expressions. 
When  about  to  use  an  important  word  in  expressing  an 
idea,  the  practiced  speaker  has  perhaps  five  other  words  at 
his  tongue's  end,  each  ready  to  leap  into  place  to  supply 
the  need  :  consequently  there  is  no  hesitation.  With  public 
speakers  few  of  the  instances  of  hesitation  are  due  to  slow- 
ness of  thought ;  the  cause  is  usually  the  hunting  for  the 
right  word.  A  help  to  the  attainment  of  fluency,  and  to 
an  avoidance  of  awkward  breaks  in  delivery,  is  the  study 
of  synonyms  and  actual  practice  in  using  them. 

Every  good  dictionary  gives  lists  of  synonyms,  or  words 
which  have  related  meanings.  When  a  person  is  in  doubt 
as  to  the  exact  meaning  of  a  word,  or  is  perplexed  about 
the  appropriateness  of  its  use  in  a  particular  connection,  or 
is  anxious  to  avoid  an  awkward  repetition,  he  will  profit 
by  a  study  of  the  synonyms  of  the  word.  Suppose  one  is 
tempted  to  say,  '"  The  parade  was  fine."  Is  it  not  obvious 
that  if  this  were  spoken  to  one  who  did  not  see  the  parade, 
the  descriptive  word  would  mean  very  little  ?  But  if  the 
speaker  had  used  his  dictionary  in  building  up  his  vocabu- 
lary he  would  have  at  command  many  synonyms  which 
would  express  his  meaning  more  accurately. 

If  hesitation  is  due  to  lack  of  words,  then  the  study  of 
synonyms  and  practice  with  them  should  help  to  cure  the 
habit  which  some  speakers  have  of  pausing  and  filling  in 
the  pauses  with  such  sounds  as  cr,  ah,  etc.  Ask  a  friend 
to  keep  account  of  these  sounds  in  the  course  of  some  talk 


64  IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 

that  you  give,  and  you  will  rouse  yourself  to  the  need  of 
careful  thinking,  a  full  vocabulary,  and  distinct,  incisive 
speaking. 

A  class  in  argumentation  once  felt  the  need  of  greater 
variety  in  opening,  closing,  and  connecting  words  in  debate. 
As  a  result,  they  prepared  the  following  list : 

SYNONYMS  FOR  DEBATING 

Agai?i,  moreover,  further,  furthermore,  also,  besides,  in  addi- 
tion to,  likewise,  once  more,  then  too,  more  than  this. 

Because,  for,  since,  as,  inasmuch  as,  for  the  reason  that,  by 
reason  of. 

Therefore,  hence,  consequently,  so,  then,  accordingly,  wherefore, 
thence,  on  that  account,  for  this  reason,  it  follows  that. 

Hcnvever,  yet,  nevertheless,  on  the  other  hand,  still,  notwith- 
standing, in  spite  of. 

Prove,  establish,  show,  substantiate,  verify,  see. 

Maintain,  assert,  claim,  allege,  declare. 

Finally,  last,  in  conclusion. 

Since  our  language  has  a  wealth  of  synonyms,  it  should 
be  possible  for  us  to  avoid  repetitions  which  attract  atten- 
tion to  sounds  rather  than  to  the  thought.  Thus,  instead 
of  saying,  "  Our  house  is  just  large  enough  to  hold  the 
whole  household,"  we  should  find  it  easy  to  say,  "  Our 
home  is  just  large  enough  for  all  the  members  of  the 
household." 

Extempore  Practice.  The  student  should  avoid  in  his 
practice  all  tendency  to  memorization.  Memorizing  crystal- 
lizes the  vocabulary  into  a  set  form  of  words  and  thereby 
deadens  the  talk.  What  the  speaker  needs  in  almost 
every  situation  is  a  live,  active  vocabulary,  one  so  varied 


ACQUIRING  FLUENCY  65 

and  so  sensitive  to  external  conditions  that  it  can  meet 
the  needs  of  the  moment  and  the  temper  of  the  audience. 
Such  a  hve  vocabulary  is  to  be  acquired  by  practicing 
speeches  in  which  a  variety  of  expressions  is  used. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  you  were  to  appear  before 
a  group  of  people  to  talk  about  a  wave  motor,  that  is,  a 
machine  designed  to  use  the  energy  of  the  waves.  You 
would  need  first,  of  course,  to  prepare  a  detailed  outline. 
Then  you  would  practice  the  talk,  expressing  the  same 
ideas  each  time,  but  avoiding  any  attempt  .to  use  exactly 
the  same  words.  Suppose  you  should  first  express  one  of 
the  ideas  as  follows  :  "  No  matter  how  bad  the  weather  be- 
comes the  machine  will  work."  It  would  be  foolish  to  use 
this  rather  commonplace  expression  each  time,  when  any 
of  the  following  would  probably  be  better : 

Even  if  it  storms  the  motor  will  work  satisfactorily. 

This  invention  has  been  tested  in  all  kinds  of  weather. 

No  matter  what  the  disturbance,  its  effectiveness  is  unimpaired. 

No  heavy  sea  can  put  it  out  of  order. 

The  construction  is  so  good  that  it  resists  any  wave  force. 

The  waves  will  buffet  it  in  vain ;  its  efficiency  will  not  be 
diminished. 

This  appliance  will  be  found  intact  after  the  hardest  test  which 
the  elements  can  offer. 

The  result  of  having  a  wealth  of  words  from  which  to 
choose  in  expressing  an  idea  is  that  when  you  actually  give 
a  talk,  the  stimulus  of  the  occasion  will  lead  you  to  just  the 
right  expressions.  You  will  not  have  to  search  for  them. 
Perhaps  a  student  thinks  he  would  do  well  to  select  before- 
hand the  best  expressions  to  use  in  all  cases,  and  then  to 
practice  the  speech,  using  only  these  particular  words  and 


66  IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 

phrases.  If  he  is  led  into  doing  this  he  fails  to  take  into 
consideration  the  fact  that  several  unforeseen  conditions 
may  arise.  He  may  find  himself  confronted  by  an  audi- 
ence of  well-informed  people  and  have  to  use  language 
of  a  technical  nature ;  or  by  an  audience  of  uneducated 
people  and  need  to  use  simple  words.  He  may  find  his 
hearers  intensely  interested  and  thus  be  able  to  give  de- 
tailed explanations  ;  or  he  may  find  them  restive  and  be 
forced  to  hurry  over  certain  portions  of  the  speech.  He 
may  be  faced  by  critical  strangers  and  wish  to  use  a  care- 
ful, dignified  manner  of  speaking ;  or  he  may  be  met  by 
sympathetic  friends  and  be  able  to  employ  a  familiar  style. 
He  may  be  interrupted,  or  questions  may  be  raised  before- 
hand ;  in  either  case  he  will  need  to  change  his  speech  to 
meet  new  conditions.  AH  this  shows  that  the  speaker  must 
have  at  his  command  the  resources  of  a  varied  vocabulary, 
and  that  memorizing  will  not  do. 

Reading  and  Writing  as  Aids.  It  is  a  debatable  question 
whether  a  person's  speaking  vocabulary  is  larger  than  his 
writing  vocabulary.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  possible  for  us 
to  write  any  word  that  we  can  speak,  for  we  can  verify  its 
spelling  by  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  possible  for  us  to  speak  any  word  that  we  can  write, 
for  we  may  look  up  its  pronunciation.  In  actual  practice, 
however,  we  frequently  avoid  the  oral  use  of  a  word  be- 
cause we  are  not  sure  of  its  pronunciation  ;  and  likewise, 
in  our  haste,  we  avoid  the  writing  of  certain  words  because 
we  are  not  sure  of  the  spelling.  In  most  of  these  cases 
we  are  not  entirely  satisfied  with  the  substitutions.  To 
avoid  such  unsatisfactory  expressions  the  student  should 
form  the  dictionary  habit  as  early  as  possible. 


ACQUIRING  FLUENCY  6^ 

Even  if  the  student  were  to  neglect  other  aids,  however, 
writing  would  be  a  great  help  to  the  fluency  of  his  speak- 
ing. When  he  is  putting  thoughts  on  paper,  he  has  to 
search  for  the  best  words  to  express  his  meaning,  and  this 
is  sure  to  have  a  good  effect  on  his  speaking  vocabulary. 
In  the  case  of  any  person,  serious  practice  in  speaking  de- 
velops, tests,  and  clarifies  the  thought,  and  is  thus  good 
preparation  for  writing ;  and  practice  in  writing  is  good 
preparation  for  speaking.  Many  speakers  make  it  a  habit 
to  write  out  carefully  an  entire  sp'eech,  and  after  revising 
and  correcting  it  to  lay  it  aside.  They  have  thus  thought 
out  at  least  one  rendering  of  the  speech  in  dignified, 
appropriate  language. 

The  student  must  remember,  however,  that  the  mere 
writing  of  words  will  not  insure  their  becoming  a  part  of 
his  speaking  vocabulary  :  it  is  necessary  to  use  them  re- 
peatedly in  oral  sentences  before  they  really  become  his. 

After  all  else  is  said,  reading  good  books  gives  one  the 
surest  foundation  for  the  development  of  fluency  in  speak- 
ing. Here  we  come  under  the  sway  of  masters  of  diction, 
who  give  us  the  riches  of  the  kingdom  of  thought  and 
make  us  rulers  over  many  kinds  of  expression.  Uncon- 
sciously we  appropriate  words  and  phrases  and  tricks  of 
speech.  And  to  make  the  gain  most  rapid,  we  have  only 
to  read  such  writers  aloud. 

Most  of  us  are  particularly  poor  in  words  of  description, 
but  wide  reading  will  help  supply  the  deficiency.  A  student 
who  is  fortunate  in  having  a  large  and  discriminating 
vocabulary  of  adjectives  says  that  he  gained  the  use  of 
these  words  by  reading  Cooper's  "The  Spy,"  "The  Last 
of  the  Mohicans,"  etc. 


68 


IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 


EXERCISES 

1.  Find  as  many  synonyms  as  possible  for  each  of  the  words 
below.  Study  the  various  meanings,  and  practice  the  words  in 
sentences.  Be  prepared  to  use  each  word  and  each  correct 
synonym  in  a  sentence.  Remember  that  synonyms  do  not  often 
have  exactly  the  same  meaning  ;  therefore  be  ready  to  show  the 
differences.    The  exercise  may  be  divided  as  seems  best. 


1.   boy 

2.  dare 

3.  angry 

4.  happy 

duty 

discharge 

big 

hard 

fun 

earn 

brave 

jolly 

mercy 

examine 

careless 

nice 

might 

hurry 

clean 

quick 

mistakes 

live 

cordial 

sharp 

neatness 

surprise 

cute 

smart 

scholar 

work 

dark 

strong 

tact 

yell 

far 

tall 

villain 

yield 

friendly 

tiny 

2.  Study  the  use  of  the  italicized  words  in  the  sentences 
below.  Find  synonyms,  and  then  revise  the  sentences  so  that 
the  ideas  are  better  expressed.  Be  ready  to  give  these  improved 
sentences  in  class. 


1.  He  is  very  much  in  earnest. 

2.  His  clothes  are  a//  rigJit. 

3.  What  a  p)xtty  tree  ! 

4.  Is  n't  this  a ^Viff^?/ morning? 

5.  Hovfjzne  you  look  ! 


6.  Willie  has  a/res/i,  bright  smile. 

7.  He  is  a  strict  captain. 

8.  We  had  a  very  good  meal. 

9.  This  is  my  busy  day. 

10.  She  has  an  open  countenance. 


3.   Express  each  of  the  following  ideas  in  five  other  ways,  and 
decide  which  is  the  best  suited  for  classroom  use : 

1.  I  am  very  glad  you  came  to  see  me. 

2.  I  'm  pleased  to  meet  you. 

3.  Allow  me  to  introduce  Mr.  Williams. 

4.  It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  present  the  name  of  Mr.  Thomas. 

5.  How  are  you  ? 


SLANG  69 

6.  I  am  sorry  to  say  I  have  n"t  time. 

7.  I  hope  you  will  get  along  all  right. 

8.  We  have  had  a  heavy  rain. 

9.  Keep  yourself  busy. 

10.   Isn't  it  beautiful  weather.'' 

4.  Select  a  subject  for  an  oral  description,  and  practice  the 
speech,  paying  particular  attention  to  the  choice  of  adjectives. 
Make  the  words  fit  the  ideas  perfectly,  so  that  the  hearers  will 
get  a  complete,  definite,  exact,  and  attractive  picture.  Let  the 
class  criticize  your  descriptive  words,  and  be  prepared  to  defend 
your  choice  of  words,  or  to  accept  the  suggestions  given. 

5.  Write  a  short  (about  200  words)  description  of  a  person 
known  to  the  members  of  the  class,  or  of  a  building  known  to 
all.  Be  very  careful  in  the  use  of  adjectives.  Read  the  description 
in  class,  and  let  it  receive  criticism  as  suggested  in  Exercise  4. 

6.  Select  a  paragraph  or  article  of  about  200  words,  and  study 
it  to  see  how'  it  may  be  expressed  in  different  words.  Perhaps 
you  may  be  able  to  improve  it,  particularly  if  it  is  a  newspaper 
article.  After  reading  the  piece  aloud  many  times,  practice  ex- 
pressing the  same  ideas  without  using  any  of  the  printed  words 
except  prepositions,  conjunctions,  articles,  and  the  like.  Do  not 
write  anything,  but  go  over  the  thought  many  times  with  the 
printed  paper  before  you,  gradually  developing  the  power  to 
paraphrase  more  and  more  rapidly. 

Read  the  article  in  class,  and  follow  it  at  once  with  the  render- 
ing in  your  own  words. 

The  Use  of  Slang  :  What  Slang  Does.  One  day  a  student 
Qt  college  chanced  to  meet  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation of  his  home  town.  The  greeting  was  cordial,  and 
conversation  was  free  and  pleasant.  But  the  student  was 
more  and  more  ashamed,  as  the  talk  proceeded,  to  find  that 
try  as  he  would  to  think  of  the  right  words  to  use,  his  college 


yo  IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 

slang  constantly  came  into  the  conversation.  This,  then,  is 
the  trouble  with  slang  ;  it  crowds  out  other  words ;  it  nar- 
rows the  vocabulary.  For  example,  the  slang  phrase  in,  '  No 
storm  can  put  this  wave  motor  out  of  commission,'  casts  its 
spell  over  us,  and  we  do  not  exert  ourselves  to  use  diction- 
ary English.  Perhaps  we  excuse  ourselves  by  saying  that 
"  out  of  commission  '  should  be,  and  in  time  will  be,  in  the 
dictionary,  just  as  hundreds  of  such  expressions  already 
have  entered  the  language.  But  you,  a  student,  cannot  put 
it  into  the  language.  Only  use  by  recognized  authors  can 
do  that,  and  meanwhile  you,  who  should  be  learning  to 
express  solid  ideas  in  reputable  words,  are  squandering 
your  chances  to  build  up  a  good  vocabulary,  just  for  the 
humor  of  the  slang. 

Moderation  and  Good  Judgment.  However,  we  should  not, 
and  cannot,  object  to  all  slang,  even  if  it  does  sometimes 
crowd  out  good  words.  Perhaps  the  safest  course  to  pursue 
is  to  agree  to  the  following  policies  ;  first,  not  to  spoil  with 
slang  the  expression  of  an  idea  which  is  worthy  of  a  dignified 
statement ;  second,  not  to  confine  all  our  talking  to  ideas 
which  seem  to  lead  to  slang ;  third,  to  try  to  avoid  associating 
constantly  with  persons  who  use  slang  to  excess  ;  and  fourth, 
whenever  we  use  slang  to  try  to  use  it  appropriately. 

The  fourth  aim,  appropriate  use,  needs  explanation.  Have 
you  not  heard  a  speaker,  in  the  course  of  a  dignified  and 
serious  speech,  without  warning  use  a  slang  expression } 
The  fact  that  his  use  of  the  slang  surprised  the  audienc^ 
showed  that  it  was  not  appropriate.  It  would  have  been 
possible  for  the  speaker  to  lead  up  to  the  expression  by  a 
smile  and  a  more  informal  manner  of  speaking.  Some- 
times* slang  may  be   introduced    in   the  words  of   another 


SLANG  71 

person  ;  as,  for  example,  "  This  machine  is  so  strong  that 
an  auctioneer  might  say  about  it,  '  Gentlemen,  no  matter 
what  the  weather,  you  will  find  this  wave  motor  on  the 
job.'  "  Writers  of  fiction  often  put  slang  into  the  mouths  of 
their  characters,  but  they  so  describe  these  persons  that  we 
should  naturally  expect  such  language  from  them.  Appro- 
priate use,  therefore,  depends  upon  the  subject,  the  time, 
the  place,  the  audience,  and  the  manner  of  the  speaker.  It 
is  rare  that  any  but  a  speaker  of  wide  experience  and  of 
large  knowledge  of  human  nature  can  succeed  in  using 
slang  fittingly  in  a  public  speech. 

There  are  on  record  cases  of  boys  in  business  who  have 
failed  of  promotion  because  of  their  habitual  use  of  slang 
and  bad  grammar.  An  errand  boy  in  a  bank  perhaps  fails 
to  be  promoted  to  one  of  the  positions  where  he  must  meet 
customers  because  of  his  "  swell  "  and  "  I  seen."  In  business, 
slang  habits  are  as  unfortunate  as  untidiness  of  dress. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Listen  to  the  talk  of  persons  on  the  athletic  field,  or  in 
business,  or  on  the  street,  or  watch  carefully  your  own  conversa- 
tion. Select  five  instances  of  the  use  of  slang.  Study  the  words 
in  question,  and  see  if  there  is  any  justification  for  their  use.  Then 
prepare  a  list  of  synonyms,  or  of  other  expressions  of  the  ideas 
involved.  Come  to  class  prepared  to  answer  the  following  questions 
about  each  slang  word  or  phrase : 

1.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  expression  used? 

2.  Did  the  circumstances  justify  the  use  of  slang.? 

3.  Was  the  slang  picturesque,  or  expressive,  or  stronger  than  ordi- 
nary words? 

4.  What  other  expressions  might  have  been  used?  Give  at  least 
five. 


72  IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 

5.  Is  there  any  indication  that  the  slang  expression  will  ever  become 
good  English  ?  Do  any  of  the  dictionaries  list  it  as  "  slang  "  ?  Do  any 
Hst  it  as  "  colloquial  "  ?  Do  any  list  it  as  authorized  English,  without 
comment  ? 

2.  Come  to  class  prepared  to  give  a  talk,  or  to  take  part  in  a 
discussion,  upon  the  following  subject :  How  can  a  pupil  counter- 
act the  bad  influence  on  his  vocabulary  of  the  playground,  the 
street,  and  his  companions  ? 

Correcting  Grammatical  Errors :  What  Bad  Grammar 
Does.  No  person  who  makes  bad  mistakes  in  grammar 
is  likely  to  succeed  as  a  public  speaker.  In  fact  he  is 
not  likely  to  be  effective  in  any  kind  of  talking.  And  since 
there  is  hardly  an  occupation  at  the  present  time  which 
does  not  require  intelligent  speaking,  the  efficiency  of  a 
person's  work  in  life  depends  largely  upon  his  ability  to  use 
language  correctly.  Those  who  speak  incorrectly  are  con- 
stantly suspected  of  ignorance,  carelessness,  eccentricity,  or 
lack  of  ability.  All  these  suspicions  may  be  unfounded,  but 
the  fact  remains  that  in  both  business  and  social  relations 
human  beings  judge  each  other  by  the  neatness  of  their 
dress  and  the  correctness  of  their  speech.  Without  this 
correctness  of  speech  as  a  fixed  habit,  a  person  is  likely  to 
go  through  life  underestimated  and  misjudged. 

The  Need  for  Oral  Practice.  Correcting  mistakes  by  re- 
writing the  sentences  correctly  will  help  but  little  ;  it  is  the 
speech  which  must  be  changed.  The  ear  must  be  trained 
to  the  correct  words.  To  get  this  training  there  is  no  better 
way  than  by  oral  practice  with  the  correct  forms  until  the 
error  is  effectively  driven  out  and  the  right  form  established. 
First  try  to  see  the  absurdity  of  the  wrong  forms,  and  learn 
to  avoid  them  as  you  would  any  other  untidiness. 


ERRORS  OF  GRAMMAR  73 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  one  is  suffering  from  the 
habit  of  using  'ain't.'  Let  him  consider  the  following 
facts  :  No  such  word  exists  in  literature  ;  no  person  ever 
purposely  uses  it  in  a  public  speech  ;  no  person  who  is  at 
all  careful  of  his  speech  ever  uses  it ;  the  word  is  univer- 
sally a  sign  of  carelessness,  hurry,  or  boorishness  ;  the  dic- 
tionary calls  it  illiterate.  Such  considerations  should  show 
anyone  the  danger  of  accustoming  the  mind  and  lips  and 
ears  to  'ain't,'  or  any  other  grammatical  error.  In  addition 
to  such  a  study,  practice  of  the  right  forms  in  sentences, 
which  show  as  many  different  uses  as  possible,  will  be 
invaluable.    For  example  : 

SENTENCES  FOR  AVOIDING  'AIN'T' 

I'm  not  going  to  the  picnic. 

You  aren't  as  old  as  I  am. 

The  other  players  say  they  're  not  going  to  play  because  they 
are  n't  in  condition. 

We  are  n't  in  very  good  trim  either,  but  we  're  not  afraid  to 
play  them. 

Tom  says  he  is  n't  going  to  play  after  this  game. 

Is  n't  that  too  bad  ! 

Are  n't  they  going  to  play  us  at  all  1 

Is  n't  every  other  date  taken  ? 

Am  I  not  on  the  team  ?    I  am,  am  I  not  ? 

If  the  student  is  in  earnest  he  will  soon  find  that  the 
first  step  has  been  taken :  he  has  arrived  at  the  place 
where  the  use  of  the  wrong  form  by  himself  or  by  others 
immediately  arouses  him.  Thus  he  is  on  the  road  to  recov- 
ery. His  case  would  be  more  discouraging  if  he  made 
errors  in  grammar  without  knowing  it.    He  will  find  as  he 


74 


IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 


continues  his  practice  that  the  correct  sounds  come  natu- 
rally to  the  mind  and  lips,  and  do  not  seem  so  strange 
when  they  are  used.  In  the  end  he  will  use  the  right 
forms  without  conscious  effort. 

Common  Errors.  Below  is  a  list  of  fifty  sentences  which 
often  show  errors.  If  the  student  frees  himself  from  any 
temptation  to  misuse  the  underscored  words,  he  will  have 
made  progress  in  his  speaking.  Other  common  stumbling 
blocks  are  irregular  verbs.  To  cure  mistakes  in  the  use  of 
these,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  compose  sentences  containing 
common  expressions  of  time ;  for  example,  "'  Every  day  I 
ride  to  school";  "Yesterday  I  rode  to  school";  "I  have 
already  lidden  to  school."  Stress  of  voice  may  be  put  on 
the  correct  forms  to  be  learned, 

GRAMMATICAL  FORMS 


Correct  Form 

Incorrect  For]\ 

1. 

I  saw  three  rabbits. 

seen 

2. 

He  has  n't  gone  to  school  for  a 

week. 

went 

3. 

Those  fellows  took  it. 

Thetn 

4. 

Fni  not  going.   He  is  fi't  going. 

I  ain't.  He  ain^t 

We  are  n^t  going.    We  V(?  not  going. 

We  aiivt 

6. 

I  would  n't  have  done  it. 

of  did 

6. 

I  threw  it  away. 

throw  ed 

7. 

He  came  here  a  year  ago. 

come 

8. 

It  was  he.    It  was  she. 

him,  her    ' 

9. 

It  is  I.    It  is  we. 

me,  us 

10. 

This  lever  is  to  start  it. 

This  here 

That  lever  is  to  start  it. 

That  there 

11. 

He  ought  not  to  have  done  it. 

hadn't  ought 

12. 

I  lay  down  on  the  grass. 

laid 

13. 

We  were  lying  on  the  grass. 

laying 

ERRORS  OF  GRAMMAR 


75 


14.  He  can  talk  better  than  /. 

15.  He  does  n^t  know  me. 

16.  Each  of  the  boats  is  ready. 

17.  I  have  n  't  brought  any  pencil. 

18.  Where  are  you  ^^m^  ? 

19.  I  havenH  any  paper. 

20.  I  have  to  do  my  lesson. 

21.  I  said  to  him,  "  Come  here  !  " 

22.  I  should  like  to  go. 

23.  My  school  is  different //w;;  yours. 

24.  He  can  play  as  ivell  as  Tom. 

25.  Neither  Jim  nor  John  has  come. 

26.  It  looks  as  (fit  would  rain. 

27.  He  rose  up  in  bed. 

28.  I  did  it  this  morning. 

29.  If  anybody  wants  an  apple, 

let  h/m  come  here. 

30.  Since  I  am  here,  I  '11  speak. 

31.  The  harness  is  badly  broken. 

32.  They  can't  explain  the  things 

that  are  going  on. 

33.  He  was  taken  to  jail. 

34.  This  is  strictly  between  you  and  me. 

35.  Where  are  they  ? 

36.  They  were  all  on  time. 

37.  The  boy  sat  on  a  chair. 

38.  May  we  go  home  ? 

39.  Whom  did  you  call  ? 

40.  I  began  it  yesterday. 

41.  He  behaved  very  badly. 

42.  Let  me  go. 

43.  When  I  heard  the  bell  I  ran  all  the  way. 

44.  If  I  were  you,  I  should  come. 

45.  I  don't  know  anything  about  it. 

46.  I  don't  understand  your  being  here. 


me 

don^t 

are 

no 

going  to  ? 

have  tiH  got 

I^ve  got 

says 

would 

than 

good 

have 

like  ;  like  as  if 

raised 

done 

them 

Being  that 
broke 

that 's 
took 
I 

are  they  at  ? 
was 
set 
Can 
Who 
begun 
bad 
Leave 
run 
2vas 
not  hi  tig 
you 


'je  IMPROVING  THE  VOCABULARY 

47.  Having  a  long  time  to  wait, 

/  7vas  very  glad  to  sit.  the  seat  zvas  very  welcome 

48.  I  could  see  but  a  few  feet  in     couldn't  see  only 

front  of  me. 

49.  This  will  teach  you  to   speak      learn  .  .  .  correct 

correctly 

50.  Have  you  eaten  your  lunch  ?         et 

EXERCISE 

Take  the  first  ten  correct  forms  of  grammatical  usage  given  in 
the  above  list.  Practice  the  correct  wording  in  as  many  sentences 
as  are  necessary  to  make  the  sounds  perfectly  familiar  to  you.  Be 
prepared  to  use  any  of  the  forms  in  ten  or  more  sentences  in 
class.  When  other  students  give  their  sentences  in  class,  listen 
carefully  and  do  not  let  any  error  escape  you. 

Other  groups  of  sentences  may  be  used  for  additional  exercises. 


CHAPTER  V 
NARRATIONS 

The  Four  Forms  of  Discourse.  If  somebody  tells  us  that 
a  century  ago  people  had  to  depend  on  candles  and  oil  for 
lights,  that  later  the  value  of  gas  .for  illuminating  was  dis- 
covered, and  that  in  1880  the  Edison  incandescent  light 
was  invented,  we  are  listening  to  a  narrative.  If  we  say 
that  the  incandescent  light  is  a  pear-shaped  glass  bulb  with 
a  brass  support,  inside  of  which  is  a  looped  wire,  we  have 
given  a  description.  If  we  say  that  the  illumination  is 
caused  by  the  electric  current,  which  heats  the  wire  to  a 
white  heat,  we  are  making  an  explanation.  And,  finally, 
if  we  try  to  persuade  another  person  that  the  incandescent 
light  is  better  than  the  gas  light  to  use  in  studying,  we 
are  making  an  argnment.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  electric 
light,  narration  tells  its  story,  description  gives  its  appear- 
ance, explanation  shows  how  it  works,  and  argument  passes 
judgment  on  it. 

Combining  the  Four  Forms  of  Discourse.  Combinations 
of  two  or  more  of  these  four  forms  of  discourse  are  com- 
mon. It  is  rare  to  hear  a  talk  of  any  length  which  confines 
irself  throughout  to  one  form.  At  the  least,  some  descrip- 
tive words  will  creep  into  the  narration  or  explanation  ;  into 
the  description  will  enter  a  sentence  or  two  of  explanation 
or  argument ;  and  into  the  argument  must  necessarily  come 
the  other  forms.    The  various  conditions  under  which  we 

77 


78  NARRATIONS 

speak  make  these  combinations  inevitable.  For  example, 
the  history  of  a  country  is  incomplete  without  a  brief  de- 
scription of  its  physical  features,  an  explanation  of  its  form 
of  government,  and  some  argument  as  to  the  worth  of  its 
national  ideals.  The  description  of  a  city  can  often  be 
better  understood  in  the  setting  of  a  brief  narrative  of  its 
past,  an  explanation  of  the  forces  of  nature  which  have 
influenced  its  growth,  and  an  argument  as  to  its  beauty  or 
advantages.  An  explanation  of  the  method  by  which  we 
elect  our  presidents  may  be  made  more  effective  by  a  nar- 
ration of  some  of  the  complications  in  the  past,  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  ballot  sheets,  and  an  argument  on  the  worth  of 
our  method.  An  argument  on  the  question  of  factory  child 
labor  should  include  a  brief  history  of  the  entrance  of 
children  into  factories,  perhaps  a  description  of  a  cannery 
or  a  cotton  mill,  and  an  explanation  of  the  effects  of  child 
labor  on  both  the  children  themselves  and  the  community 
in  general. 

Often  the  narration,  description,  or  explanation  is  the 
most  effective  part  of  an  argimient,  A  well-told  story  of  an 
accident  given  before  a  board  of  directors  may  save  a  man 
his  position  ;  a  vivid  description  of  a  room  and  its  furniture 
may  win  a  lawsuit ;  a  clear  explanation  of  the  workings  of 
the  commission  form  of  government  may  win  a  debate. 

Although  combinations  of  the  four  forms  of  discourse 
are  necessary  and  desirable,  yet  we  must  always  keep  clearly 
in  mind  what  our  main  purpose  is,  —  narration,  description, 
explanation,  or  argument,  —  and  every  form  used  must  be 
made  to  serve  that  particular  purpose.  In  our  school  prac- 
tice it  will  be  wise  at  first  to  confine  each  talk  largely  to 
one  form. 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  79 

In  Chapters  I  and  II  we  have  already  considered  ex- 
planation and  argument ;  in  the  present  chapter  we  shall 
discuss  how  to  prepare  an  oral  narration. 

EXERCISES 

1 .  a.  Any  one  of  the  topics  listed  below  may  be  made  the  basis 
of  a  talk  in  each  of  the  four  forms  of  discourse.  Choose  one  of 
the  topics,  and  decide  how  to  make  it  form  the  subject  of  a  narra- 
tive, a  description,  an  explanation,  and  an  argument.  Come  to 
class  prepared  to  tell  what  ideas  you  would  develop  for  each  talk. 

b.  Prepare  and  deliver  one  of  the  talks. 

1.  An  automobile.  6.  A  game. 

2.  A  sewing  machine.  7.    A  telephone. 

3.  A  fountain  pen.  8.   Postage  stamps. 

4.  A  horse.  9.  An  aeroplane. 

5.  Writing  paper.  10.  A  certain  man. 

2.  a.  Choose  one  of  the  following  topics  for  a  talk  in  which 
the  four  forms  of  discourse  are  used.  Come  to  class  prepared  to 
explain  to  the  others  how  you  would  plan  such  a  talk. 

b.   Prepare  and  give  the  talk  in  class. 

1.  How  education  will  improve  citizenship. 

2.  The  small  college  is  better  than  the  large  college. 

3.  Will  the  aeroplane  be  of  use  in  carrying  mail  ? 

4.  The  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  the  prepayment  cars. 

5.  The  tramp  problem. 

6.  The  European  war. 

7.  How  war  interrupts  business. 

8.  The  cotton  industry  in  the  United  States. 

9.  Laws  about  oil  drippings  from  automobiles. 
10.  The  "  Camp  Fire  Girls  "  movement. 

Choosing  Subjects  for  Narrations.  We  never  let  a  day 
pass  without  telling  somebody  about  its  happenings,  or 
about  events  and  incidents   of   other  days.     Yet   many  of 


8o  NARRATIONS 

us  use  little  discrimination  in  the  choice  of  what  we  tell. 
Only  significant  events  are  worth  recalling  —  events  sig- 
nificant both  to  the  tellers  and  to  the  listeners.  It  will  be, 
worth  while  to  remember  this  in  the  Oral  English  recitation, 
and  to  choose  narrations  which  have  meaning :  those  from 
which  interest,  entertainment,  or  profitable  conclusions  may 
be  drawn.  For  this  purpose  there  are  many  sources  of 
good  stories.  All  about  us  interesting  things  are  happening 
which  will  be  news  to  most  of  the  members  of  the  class. 
Magazines  and  newspapers  are  stocked  with  the  records  of 
events  many  of  which  are  suitable  for  the  classroom.  One 
may  also  tell  the  stories  of  plays  and  books,  provided  they 
are  not  made  long  and  tiresome. 

Careful  Planning.  We  should  never  attempt  to  tell  a 
story  without  thinking  over  the  whole  narration  first.  If 
reading  or  study  is  necessary  in  preparing  for  the  talk,  this 
should  be  done  painstakingly,  memoranda  being  made  of 
the  essential  points.  If  we  are  going  to  tell  about  a  real 
happening,  we  may  try  to  find  out  what  event  led  up  to 
the  incidents  with  which  we  are  concerned,  and  what  the 
sequel  or  after-effects  were.  Then  we  should  plan  the  out- 
line for  the  telling.  The  outline  should  be  complete,  in- 
cluding the  introduction,  the  events  to  be  narrated,  and 
the  conclusion.  But  all  points  not  significant  for  the  main 
purpose  of  the  story  must  be  excluded. 

Opening  Words.  The  introductory  words  should  usually 
give  the  setting  for  the  story ;  that  is,  they  should  tell 
where,  when,  and  under  what  circumstances  the  events  took 
place.  Ordinarily  they  should  also  introduce  one  or  more 
of  the  characters  of  the  story.  Thus,  if  we  were  telling 
about  a  football  game,  we  should  preface  the  actual  story 


PLANNING  THE  STORY  8 1 

with  a  statement  of  the  schools  playing,  the  place,  and  the 
date,  and  should  explain,  perhaps,  whether  or  not  the  game 
was  of  any  importance.  The  story  of  a  summer  vacation 
might  begin  with  such  a  statement  as  the  following : 
'"  Three  years  ago  last  summer  I  was  offered  the  oppor- 
tunity of  spending  the  month  of  July  with  my  uncle's 
family  in  a  house  boat  on  the  Mississippi,  I  was  to  meet 
my  uncle  at  St.  Paul,  and  the  trip  was  to  cost  me  only 
my  fare  back  from   St.  Louis." 

Introducing  New  Persons  or  Scenes.  As  the  story  pro- 
ceeds new  characters  may  be  brought  in,  each  being  intro- 
duced by  words  which  will  make  clear  his  identity  and  his 
relation  to  the  other  persons.  Similarly,  if  the  setting 
changes  during  the  story,  a  few  preliminary  words  of  ex- 
planation will  be  needed  at  that  point.  The  following 
expressions  will  indicate  what  we  mean  :  '  A  month  later '  ; 
'  We  must  see  what  has  been  happening  in  Pittsburg ' ; 
'  When  we  came  back  to  camp  we  found  that  all  our 
blankets  were  wet.' 

Indicating  the  Point  of  View.  Sometimes  the  point  of 
view  used  in  the  story  is  an  unusual  one,  and  must  be  indi- 
cated in  the  opening  words.  If  you  are  one  of  the  characters 
in  the  story,  and  are  telling  it  as  your  personal  experiences, 
the  events  of  the  narration  should  be  given  in  the  order  in 
which  they  affected  you.  If  you  had  no  part  in  the  story, 
then  the  order  of  narration  should  ordinarily  be  that  in 
which  you  learned  of  the  events.  Or,  if  as  an  outside  third 
person  you  are  supposed  to  see  into  the  minds  of  the  actors 
and  to  tell  about  their  motives  and  feelings,  then  you  may 
arrange  the  events  in  whatever  order  will  best  serve  the 
point  or  aim  of  the  story. 


82  NARRATIONS 

Emphasizing  Significant  Details.  In  the  stories  which 
have  plots,  often  something  in  the  setting  or  the  early 
happenings  has  prime  significance  for  the  climax.  Thus, 
in  the  story  of  a  mountain  trip,  the  time  of  year  might  be 
the  fact  of  most  importance  in  the  exciting  part  of  the 
story.  Or  the  point  of  the  story  might  hinge  on  the  fact 
that  on  the  night  preceding  the  events  related  one  of  the 
boys  left  his  hat  hanging  in  the  schoolroom ;  or  that  a  tree 
had  blown  down ;  or  that  a  high  fence  prevented  one  from 
seeing  beyond  it.  Whenever  such  points  determine  what  is 
to  happen  later  in  the  story,  they  must  be  so  clearly  given 
that  no  listener  will  miss  them. 

The  introduction  is  frequently  not  a  part  of  the  narration 
itself,  but  consists  of  explanation  or  description,  or  both. 

The  Series  of  Events.  After  the  introductory  sentence  or 
sentences,  we  begin  the  recital  of  the  actual  happenings. 
We  must  decide  whether  to  have  the  action  slow  or  rapid. 
Our  recital  must  show  the  hearers  the  rate  of  this  action. 
We  accomplish  this  by  expressions  which  show  the  passage 
of  time,  such  as  '  After  a  few  minutes ' ;  '  The  next  day '  ; 
'  In  May  ' ;  '  At  the  end  of  vacation  '  ;  etc.,  and  by  the  con- 
creteness  with  which  we  tell  about  actual  events.  Thus  we 
give  a  better  idea  of  the  time  involved  by  saying,  "They 
dug  a  trench  as  large  as  the  door  and  a  mile  and  a  half 
long,"  than  by,  "They  dug  a  long  trench." 

We  have  hinted  above  that  the  point  of  view  may  deter- 
mine the  order  in  telling  the  several  events  of  the  story. 
Some  stories  have  for  their  climax  the  discovery  of  an 
event  which  has  occurred  earlier.  Some  books  of  fiction 
"begin  in  the  middle,"  and  do  not  tell  about  prior  happen- 
ings until  later  chapters.    As  a  rule,  however,  most  of  the 


STORIES  WITHOUT  PLOTS  83 

stories  told  in  the  Oral  English  class  should  follow  the  ex- 
act order  of  time  in  which  the  events  themselves  occurred. 
For  this  reason  it  is  not  difficult  to  prepare  an  outline 
for  narration. 

Two  Kinds  of  Narrations.  There  are  two  kinds  of  narra- 
tives :  those  in  which  the  events  lead  up  to  a  crisis  and 
then  down  to  an  adjustment  or  solution,  and  those  in  which 
a  mere  series  of  events  without  a  crisis  is  chronicled.  The 
story  of  a  flood  presents  a  crisis  ;  the  story  of  a  journey 
ordinarily  does  not.  The  presence  of  a  crisis  in  a  story 
makes  a  plot ;  there  is  a  complication  which  develops  as 
the  story  proceeds  and  is  solved  before  the  end. 

Stories  without  Plots.  Stories  with  good  plots  are  uni- 
versally interesting  and  entertaining,  but  those  without  plots 
are  often  attractive  only  to  persons  who  already  know  some- 
thing of  the  characters  and  the  circumstances  involved.  In 
any  case  the  narration  should  be  studied  so  thoroughly,  and 
the  telling  practiced  so  well,  that  the  story  will  be  presented 
attractively.  In  arranging  the  outline  for  a  narration  with- 
out a  plot,  the  events  may  be  set  down  in  their  time  order. 
An  examination  of  this  list  of  events  will  then  show  that 
they  may  be  grouped  under  a  few  general  topics.  For  ex- 
ample, the  events  of  a  trip  or  picnic  might  be  grouped 
under  the  following  heading : 

THE  EVENTS  OF  A  PICNIC 


1. 

The  trip  down  the  river. 

2. 

The  swim. 

3. 

The  lunch. 

4. 
5. 
6. 

The  old  fort.    (Description) 
The  games  on  the  beach. 
The  return. 

84  NARRATIONS 

It  is  in  stories  without  plots  that  so  many  speakers  grow 
tiresome  because  they  tell  too  much.  Every  story  should 
have  an  aim  or  central  thought,  and  if  this  central  thought 
is  kept  in  mind  it  will  be  easier  to  hold  to  the  main  thread 
of  the  story.  In  using  the  outline  above,  the  narrator's  pur- 
pose may  be  to  tell  what  a  good  time  he  had,  or  to  show 
what  a  splendid  place  for  a  picnic  was  found,  or  merely  to 
share  with  a  friend  the  renewal  of  the  good  times.  In  the 
case  of  any  of  these  aims,  he  need  not  describe  the  boat 
they  rode  in,  nor  what  they  had  for  lunch,  nor  the  exact 
order  of  the  games,  nor  the  detailed  history  of  the  fort ;  in 
short,  he  should  not  exasperate  his  hearers  with  all  the  tire- 
some details  which  so  often  make  listening  to  stories  a  bore. 

Ask  yourself  why  you  are  telling  a  story  at  all,  and  do 
not  tell  it  unless  you  can  find  a  good  reason.  With  your 
purpose  in  mind,  exclude  everything  from  the  narrative 
which  does  not  bear  on  that  aim. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Study  the  story  below,  in  the  light  of  what  we  have  discussed 
thus  far.  Come  to  class  prepared  to  point  out  its  merits  as  a  narra- 
tion without  a  plot,  and  its  defects,  if  you  think  there  are  any.  In 
any  case,  discuss  possible  changes  or  improvements  in  the  telling. 

DAVID  COPPERFIELD'S  LESSON 

I  come  into  the  second  best  pador  after  breakfast,  with  my  books 
and  an  exercise  book  and  a  slate.  My  mother  is  ready  for  me  at  her 
writing  desk,  but  not  half  so  ready  as  Mr.  Murdstone,  in  his  easy-chair 
by  the  window  (though  he  pretends  to  be  reading  a  book),  or  as  Miss 
Murdstone,  sitting  near  my  mother  stringing  steel  beads.  .  .  . 

I  hand  the  first  book  to  my  mother.  Perhaps  it  is  a  grammar,  per- 
haps a  history  or  a  geography.    I  take  a  last  drowning  look  at  the  page 


STORIES  WITHOUT  PLOTS  85 

as  I  give  it  into  my  mother's  hand,  and  start  off  aloud  at  a  racing  pace 
while  I  have  got  it  fresh.  I  trip  over  a  word.  Mr.  Murdstone  looks  up. 
I  trip  over  another  word.  Miss  Murdstone  looks  up.  I  redden,  tumble 
over  a  half-dozen  words,  and  stop.  I  think  my  mother  would  show  me 
the  book  if  she  dared,  but  she  does  not  dare,  and  she  says  softly : 

"  Oh,  Davy,  Davy  !  " 

"  Now,  Clara,"  says  Mr.  Murdstone,  "  be  firm  with  the  boy.  Don't 
say,  '  Oh,  Davy,  Davy  ! '  That 's  childish.  He  knows  his  lesson  or  he 
does  not  know  it." 

"  He  does  not  know  it,"  Miss  Murdstone  interposes  awfully. 

"  I  am  really  afraid  he  does  not,"  says  my  mother. 

"  Then,  you  see,  Clara,"  returns  Miss  JVIurdstone,  "  you  should  just 
give  him  the  book  back  and  make  him  know  it." 

"  Yes,  certainly,"  says  my  mother :  "  that  is  what  I  intend  to  do, 
my  dear  Jane.     Now,   Davy,  try  once  more,  and  don't  be  stupid." 

I  obey  the  first  clause  of  the  injunction  by  trying  once  more,  but  I 
am  not  so  successful  with  the  second,  for  I  am  very  stupid.  1  tumble 
down  before  I  get  to  the  old  place,  at  a  point  where  I  was  all  right  be- 
fore, and  stop  to  think.  .  .  .  Mr.  Murdstone  makes  a  movement  of  im- 
patience which  I  have  been  expecting  for  a  long  time.  Miss  Murdstone 
does  the  same.  My  mother  glances  submissively  at  them,  shuts  the 
book,  and  lays  it  by  as  an  arrear  to  be  worked  out  when  my  other  tasks 
are  done.  .  .  . 

But  the  greatest  effect  in  these  miserable  lessons  is  when  my  mother 
(thinking  nobody  is  observing  her)  tries  to  give  me  the  cue  by  the  motion 
of  her  lips.  At  that  instant  Miss  Murdstone,  who  has  been  lying  in  wait 
for  nothing  else  all  along,  says  in  a  deep,  warning  voice : 

"  Clara !  " 

My  mother  starts,  colors,  and  smiles  faintly.  Mr.  Murdstone 
comes  out  of  his  chair,  takes  the  book,  throws  it  at  me  or  boxes  my  ears 
with  it,  and  turns  me  out  of  the  room  by  the  shoulders. — Dickens, 
"  David  Copperfield  " 

2.  Choose  a  subject  for  a  narration  without  a  plot,  prepare  the 
outline,  practice  the  telling,  and  give  the  story  before  the  class. 
Pay  particular  attention  to  the  opening  and  the  closing  words. 
The  following  subjects  are  suggested : 


86 


• 

NARRATIONS 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

A  picnic. 
A  banquet. 
A  visit. 
A  game. 
A  celebration. 

6.  An  incident  in  class. 

7.  A  trip. 

8.  An  entertainment. 

9.  A  current  event. 

10.  An  incident  in  business  life. 

Stories  with  Plots.  -When  the  narration  has  a  plot,  the 
incidents  of  the  story  must  all  be  grouped  about  that  com- 
plication, for  the  sole  purpose  of  the  story  is  to  show  the 
existence  of  the  problem  and  the  series  of  events  which 
led  to  its  solution  or  consequences. 

The  very  first  sentences  of  the  story,  the  sentences  of 
the  introduction,  should  show  the  existence  of  a  plot  or  the 
approach  of  a  crisis.  This  may  be  done  in  some  such  gen- 
eral expression  as  the  following :  "  One  of  the  most  excit- 
ing incidents  of  the  year  occurred  yesterday  at  the  public 
market." 

Next  should  come  the  necessary  information  as  to  the 
setting,  as  we  have  suggested  above. 

Then  will  follow  the  series  of  events  of  the  narration 
proper.  The  first  events  should  deal,  either  directly  or  sug- 
gestively, with  the  plot ;  for  example,  "  Cassius  decided  that 
he  would  try  to  stir  the  Romans  against  Cassar "  shows 
exactly  what  the  complication  or  plot  of  the  story  is  to  be. 
"  The  engineer  knew  there  might  be  danger  ahead  "  sug- 
gests a  complication  but  does  not  define  it. 

In  planning  the  events  of  the  story,  it  is  necessary  to 
work  toward  the  climax  in  such  a  way  as  gradually  to  in- 
crease the  interest  and  zest  of  the  hearers.  Each  single 
event  follows  the  hint  given  at  first,  until  the  actual  crisis 
is  reached.  Each  event  is  more  absorbing  than  the  one 
before  it.    The  attention  is  gripped  and  held ;  the  hearers 


STORIES  WITH  PLOTS  8/ 

begin  to  wonder  how  the  solution  can  be  made,  how  the  com- 
pHcation  can  be  resolved,  "what  will  happen  next."  Sus- 
pense and  expectancy  come  in  to  add  to  the  interest  and 
excitement.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  just  here  great 
care  is  needed  to  hold  the  hearers  in  suspense  just  the  right 
amount  of  time.    This  is  where  story-telling  becomes  an  art. 

Next  comes  the  event  or  events  which  form  the  climax. 
These  are  the  most  exciting  or  interesting  of  all ;  they  are 
at  the  height  of  the  complication,  and  at  the  very  point 
where  it  is  solved. 

From  this  point  the  events  which  follow  are  concerned 
with  the  details  of  the  solution  and  with  the  immediate  con- 
sequences of  the  events  in  the  climax.  This  part  of  the 
story  should  be  brief  but  convincing.  Brevity  is  important 
because  the  interest  of  the  hearers  cannot  be  maintained 
at  the  highest  point  very  far  beyond  the  climax.  But  the 
hearers  will  usually  wish  to  know  something  of  the  after- 
effects or  consequences  of  the  exciting  events  of  the  story ; 
the  narration  would  often  be  incomplete  if  it  ended  with 
the  climax,  even  if  this  included  the  solution. 

I'lots  are  often  concerned  with  a  struggle  between  two 
forces  or  sets  of  forces,  or  between  two  personalities.  In- 
terest is  aroused  by  showing  the  supremacy  now  of  one 
force  and  now  of  the  other.  The  story  of  the  persons  or 
forces  which  operate  against  the  solution  of  the  plot  is 
called  the  counterplot. 

In  preparing  stories  for  classroom  telling,  the  pupil  should 
remember  that  the  best  stories  as  well  as  the  best  plays 
often  have  unexpected  solutions,  an  element  of  the  unusual 
or  of  surprise,  either  in  the  manner  of  the  solution  or  in 
the  solution  itself. 


88  NARRATIONS 

Conclusions.  The  story  without  a  plot  should  usually  have 
a  sentence  or  two  of  conclusion.  This  ending  should  not  be 
a  part  of  the  narration  itself,  but  should  rather  concern  itself 
with  a  general  remark  about  the  story,  such  as  its  value,  its 
general  interest,  or  its  consequences. 

The  story  with  a  plot  may  have  a  conclusion  of  the  same 
kind,  though  sometimes  a  good  statement  following  the 
climax,  as  explained  above,  will  serve  as  the  conclusion. 
Fables  and  some  other  stories  end  with  morals  which  the 
stories  have  taught,  but  it  is  now  thought  best  to  let  the 
listeners  draw  their  own  conclusions  and  to  learn  their  own 
lessons  from  the  stories. 

Interesting  the  Listeners.  In  telling  stories,  more  perhaps 
than  in  any  other  kind  of  oral  exercise,  the  speaker  needs 
to  study  the  faces  of  his  hearers,  to  see  when  the  interest 
is  keen,  when  to  give  more  details,  when  to  proceed  more 
rapidly,  and  when  to  bring  the  story  to  an  end.  We  give 
narrations  for  the  benefit  of  our  listeners  and  for  no  other 
reason.  Sometimes  we  are  tempted  to  give  the  chief  con- 
sideration to  the  story,  and  to  give  the  audience  secondary 
attention.  Rather  we  should  know  our  story  so  well,  through 
study  and  practice  by  ourselves,  that  we  can  put  almost  our 
whole  thought  on  interesting  and  entertaining  our  hearers, 

EXERCISES 

1.  Study  the  story  below,  and  come  to  class  prepared  to  dis- 
cuss its  merits,  and  its  defects  if  there  are  any.  What  changes  do 
you  think  might  be  made  with  advantage  ?  Be  prepared  to  point 
out  (a)  the  features  of  the  story  which  result  in  the  rise  of  interest, 
(b)  the  climax  of  the  story,  and  (c)  the  series  of  events  which  give 
the  after-effects  or  consequences. 


STORIES  WITH  PLOTS  89 

HOW  JOHN   BINNS,  FIREMAN,  SAVED  A  BOYi 

Thirteen  years  have  passed  since,  but  it  is  all  to  me  as  if  it  had 
happened  yesterday  —  the  clanging  of  the  fire  bells,  the  hoarse  shouts 
of  the  firemen,  the  wild  rush  and  terror  of  the  streets ;  then  the  great 
hush  that  fell  upon  the  crowd ;  the  sea  of  upturned  faces  with  the  fire 
glow  upon  it ;  and  up  there,  against  the  background  of  black  smoke 
that  poured  from  roof  and  attic,  the  boy  clinging  to  the  narrow  ledge, 
so  far  up  that  it  seemed  humanly  impossible  that  help  could  ever  come. 

But  even  then  it  was  coming.  Up  from  the  street,  while  the  crew 
of  the  truck  company  were  laboring  with  the  heavy  extension  ladder 
that  at  its  longest  stretch  was  many  feet  top  short,  crept  four  men  upon 
long,  slender  poles  with  crossbars,  iron-hooked  at  the  end.  Standing  in 
one  window,  they  reached  up  and  thrust  the  hook  through  the  next 
one  above,  then  mounted  a  story  higher.  Again  the  crash  of  glass,  and 
again  the  dizzy  ascent.  Straight  up  the  wall  they  crept,  looking  like 
human  flies  on  the  ceiling,  and  clinging  as  close,  never  resting,  reaching 
one  recess  only  to  set  out  for  the  next ;  nearer  and  nearer  in  the  race 
for  life,  until  but  a  single  span  separated  the  foremost  from  the  boy. 
And  now  the  iron  hook  fell  at  his  feet,  and  the  fireman  stood  upon 
the  step  with  the  rescued  lad  in  his  arms,  just  as  the  pent-up  flame 
burst  lurid  from  the  attic  window,  reaching  with  impotent  fury  for  its 
prey.  The  next  moment  they  were  safe  upon  the  great  ladder  waiting 
to  receive  them  below. 

Then  such  a  shout  went  up !  Men  fell  on  each  other's  necks,  and 
cried  and  laughed  at  once.  Strangers  slapped  one  another  on  the  back, 
with  glistening  faces,  shook  hands,  and  behaved  generally  like  men 
gone  suddenly  mad.  Women  wept  in  the  street.  The  driver  of  a  car 
stalled  in  the  crowd,  who  had  stood  through  it  all  speechless,  clutching 
the  reins,  whipped  his  horses  into  a  gallop  and  drove  away,  yelling  like  a 
Comanche,  to  relieve  his  feelings.  The  boy  and  his  rescuer  were  carried 
across  the  street  without  anyone  knowing  how.  Policemen  forgot  their 
dignity  and  shouted  with  the  rest.  Fire,  peril,  terror,  and  loss  were  alike 
forgotten  in  the  one  touch  of  nature  that  makes  the  whole  world  kin. 

Fireman  John  Binns  was  made  captain  of  his  crew,  and  the  Bennett 
medal  was  pinned  on  his  coat  on  the  next  parade  day. —Jacob  A.  Riis 

1  From  "  Heroes  who  Fight  Fire,"  'Jltc  Century,  Vol.  LV,  p.  483  (Febru- 
ary, 1898).    Copyright  by  The  Century  Company;  printed  by  permission. 


90  NARRATIONS 

2.  Choose  a  story  with  a  plot,  prepare  the  outline,  and  be 
ready  to  give  the  narration  in  class,  paying  particular  attention 
to  the  development  and  solution  of  the  plot.  The  basis  for  your 
story  may  be  found  in  a  paper,  magazine,  book,  or  play,  or 
you  may  create  the  story  yourself.  The  following  topics  may  be 
suggestive : 

1.  The  lost  boy.  6.  Timely  help. 

2.  The  trick  that  failed.  7.  The  capture. 

3.  A  young  hero.  8.  Turning  defeat  into  victory. 

4.  How  the  runaway  was  stopped.      9.  Caught  in  a  storm. 

5.  The  race.  10.  The  escape. 


CHAPTER  VI 
DESCRIPTIONS 

Purpose  of  Description.  We  have  said  that  description 
aims  to  give  the  characteristics  or  distinguishing  features  of 
an  object  or  a  person.  Descriptions  in  hterature  are  often 
elaborate  and  suggestive ;  Scott's  picture  of  the  Dead  Sea 
in  the  first  pages  of  the  "Tahsman"  is  an  example  of  the 
wonderful  power  of  carefully  chosen  words  to  affect  the 
sensitive  plate  of  the  mental  eye.  The  pupil  in  oral  work 
may,  after  long  practice,  acquire  the  ability  to  make  descrip- 
tions of  real  literary  merit.  He  must  begin,  however,  with 
the  everyday  descriptions  such  as  he  gives  when  telling  a 
friend  about  a  town  he  has  visited,  or  about  the  appearance 
of  a  ship,  or  a  scene  at  a  celebration. 

How  the  Senses  aid  Description.  How  does  a  person 
gather  his  material  for  the  description  of  a  town,  a  ship,  or 
the  scene  at  a  celebration  .''  Obviously,  through  his  senses, 
for  the  ideas  which  he  works  into  a  description  are  based 
on  sense  impressions.  Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  the 
gathering  of  information  about  a  celebration.  The  sense  of 
sight  shows  us  forms,  colors,  and  movements.  The  general 
shape  of  the  whole  place  is  perhaps  revealed  first,  then  the 
different  details  and  the  relative  sizes  and  distances.  The 
color  of  the  sky,  of  the  foliage,  of  the  decorations,  and  of 
the  costumes  is  impressed  upon  us,  and  the  movements 
of  the  trees,  conveyances,  and  people.    Tlirough  the  other 

9' 


92  DESCRIPTIONS 

senses  we  get  the  impressions  of  the  stirring  of  the  wind, 
and  of  the  josthng  of  the  merrymakers  ;  the  sound  of  talk- 
ing and  laughing,  the  cries  of  venders,  and  the  noise  of 
automobiles  ;  the  smell  of  smoke,  of  gasoline,  of  grass,  and 
of  flowers. 

Besides  recounting  the  impressions  which  our  senses 
have  given  us,  we  also  weave  into  the  description  ideas 
which  grow  out  of  these  sense  impressions  :  beauty,  curios- 
ity, friendship,  patriotism,  haste,  pleasure.  All  these  furnish 
the  material  for  the  essential  parts  of  the  description. 

EXERCISE 

a.  Study  one  of  the  following  subjects,  drawing  on  the  imagi- 
nation as  much  as  may  be  necessary,  to  determine  what  descriptive 
material  might  be  furnished  by  each  of  the  five  senses,  or  by  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  resulting  from  sense  impressions.  Be  pre- 
pared to  tell  the  class  what  impressions  a  person  might  gather 
as  material  for  a  talk. 

b.  Give  the  description  in  class. 

1.  A  park.  6.  A  harbor. 

2.  A  ship.  7.  A  pure-foods,  exposition. 

3.  A  farm.  8.  A  snowstorm. 

4.  An  automobile  race.  9.  A  kitchen. 

5.  A  meat  market.  10.  A  skating  party. 

The  Outline  for  the  Description.  What  order  should  a 
talk  of  description  follow  ?  Description  cannot  follow  the 
time  order,  for  the  mind  receives  many  different  impres- 
sions and  feelings  simultaneously,  and  neither  in  writing 
nor  in  speaking  can  we  convey  in  an  instant  any  such 
composite  thought.  In  giving  a  description,  therefore,  as 
in  all  other  talks,  it  is  necessary  to  plan  the  order  of  topics. 


THE  OUTLINE  93 

This  list  of  topics,  or  outline,  will  usually  include  an  intro- 
duction, a  statement  of  the  point  of  view,  the  statement  of 
a  central  idea,  the  details  of  the  description  grouped  under 
this  central  idea,  and  a  conclusion. 

The  Introduction.  The  beginning  of  the  talk  should 
give  the  broader  and  more  general  ideas  which  lead  up 
to  the  subject.  These  ideas  may  include  the  brief  narration 
of  the  experience  upon  which  the  description  is  based,  the 
reason  for  its  interest,  or  its  relation  to  objects  with  which 
the  hearers  are  already  familiar.  ■  This  may  be  done  in 
some  such  way  as  the  following :  "  Three  years  ago  this 
winter,  in  a  trip  across  the  continent,  I  saw  from  the  car 
window  a  blizzard  on  the  prairie."  Or  again,  "  You  have 
all  heard  of  the  dikes  of  Holland  ;  I  am  going  to  tell  you 
of  an  island  in  a   California  river  where  a  similar  device 

has  been  used."  * 

EXERCISE 

a.  Give  the  introduction  to  a  description  based  upon  one  of 
the  topics  below. 

6.  Give  the  complete  description. 

1.  The  city -plan  of  Venice.  6.  A  view  from  a  mountain. 

2.  A  landscape.  7.  An  ocean  steamship. 

3.  An  iceberg.  8.  Scenes  at  a  field  day. 

4.  Washington  monument.  9.  A  picture. 

5.  A  sunset.  10.  A  playground. 

The  Point  of  View.  The  sentence  used  above  to  intro- 
duce the  description  of  a  blizzard  tells  the  point  of  view 
from  which  the  blizzard  is  observed.  The  point  of  view  of 
a  person  who  happened  to  be  outside  the  car  would  have 
been  quite  different.  A  traveler's  impressions  of  the  city 
of  Venice  depend  upon  whether  he  views  it  first  from  the 


94  DESCRIPTIONS 

land  or  from  the  sea,  whether  he  observes  it  as  he  walks 
through  the  streets,  or  as  he  rides  upon  the  canals,  or  as  he 
looks  down  upon  it  from  a  height.  It  is  therefore  necessary 
for  the  speaker,  in  most  cases,  to  indicate  early  in  his  talk 
his  point  of  view. 

Occasionally  the  point  of  view,  changes  during  the  talk. 
Such  a  change  must  be  clearly  indicated  ;  as,  for  example, 
'  Let  us  now  get  a  closer  view  '  ;  '  Passing  inside  the  build- 
ing, we  find  ' ;  '  Quite  different  is  the  view  to  the  north.' 
The  point  of  view,  as  we  shall  see  later,  also  helps  determine 
the  order  of  details  in  the  description. 

The  student  must  not  think,  however,  that  every  descrip- 
tion should  include  a  statement  of  the  point  of  view.  It 
is  not  always  necessary  in  the  case  of  a  small  object,  such 
as  a  hat,  a  lace  collar,  a  table ;  nor  in  such  cases  as  a 
description   of  the   stars,   of  the  facade   of  a  building,   or 

of  a  picture. 

EXERCISE 

a.  Give  the  introduction  and  enough  of  the  description  of  one 
of  the  subjects  below  to  show  the  speaker's  point  of  view. 

b.  Give  the  complete  talk  of  description. 

1.  A  church.  6.  A  battleship. 

2.  A  football  game.  7.  The  Panama  Canal. 


&^ 


3.  A  mountain.  8.  The  city  of  San  Francisco. 

4.  A  railway  station,  inside.  9.  The  house  you  live  in. 

5.  A  railway  station,  outside.  10.  A  shop  or  store. 

The  Central  Idea  of  the  Description.  As  the  description 
proceeds,  one  object,  or  one  part  of  an  object,  or  one  idea, 
will  probably  stand  out  as  the  most  important  point  in  the 
talk.  This  must  be  brought  out  clearly,  and  if  possible  all 
the  other  parts  of  the  description  should  be  related  to  it. 


THE  ORDER  OF  THE  DETAILS  95 

In  describing  Venice  the  Grand  Canal  may  be  selected  as 
the  leading  feature,  in  which  case  the  railroads,  stations, 
small  canals,  streets,  squares,  bridges,  and  buildings  may 
be  spoken  of  in  their  relation  to  it.  Again,  St.  Mark's 
Square  or  the  Rialto  Bridge  may  be  chosen  ;  or  the  talk 
may  have  running  through  it,  as  the  central  idea,  the 
unique  character  of  the  city  due  to  the  absence  of  street 
cars,  horses,  and  automobiles.  The  central  idea  in  the 
description  of  a  celebration  may  be  the  grand  stand,  or 
the  entrance  of  the  parade,  or  the  sense  of  confusion,  or 
the  gayety  of  the  people. 

The  Order  of  the  Parts.  Suppose  we  are  standing  in 
the  torch  of  the  Statue  of  Liberty  in  New  York  harbor, 
looking  northward.  What  do  we  see  ?  At  first,  water  and 
ships,  and  land  and  high  buildings.  That  is  to  say,  the 
first  impressions  are  of  the  larger  or  closer  objects.  The 
oral  description  must  follow  the  same  plan,  giving  the  broad, 
general  ideas  first,  and  the  details  later.  Soon  after  the 
eye  first  sweeps  the  scene,  some  one  part  of  the  view 
holds  the  attention  and  becomes  the  central  idea.  Perhaps 
it  is  the  tall  buildings  or  the  busy  harbor.  Let  us  assume 
that  it  is  the  former,  but  our  talk  need  not  announce  this 
central  idea,  for  it  will  appear  and  reappear  as  we  proceed. 

Next  come  the  details  of  the  description  :  the  separate 
buildings  ;  the  Battery  ;  Brooklyn  Bridge  ;  the  many  ferry- 
boats going  to  and  from  the  city ;  the  ships  entering  and 
leaving  the  harbor ;  the  docks  fringing  the  group  of  build- 
ings ;  the  two  rivers  and  the  two  other  cities,  one  on  either 
side ;  the  big  liner  just  passing  on  her  way  to  the  city.  So 
the  picture  is  completed,  with  whatever  order  of  sights  and 
sounds  best  suits  the  occasion  and  the  purpose. 


96  DESCRIPTIONS 

If  a  person  is  moving  through  a  building,  the  order  of 
details  is  determined  by  the  plan  of  the  building.  It  is 
particularly  helpful  to  the  hearers  for  the  speaker  to  show 
the  connection  between  the  parts  of  the  description.  For 
example,  we  might  show  that  in  a  certain  schoolhouse  the 
main  hall  leads  to  the  auditorium,  that  from  the  auditorium 
one  may  go  to  the  gymnasium  just  below  it,  and  from  the 
gymnasium  to  the  playground,  then  across  the  grounds  to 
the  new  building  opposite,  etc.  There  should  be  no  jumps 
between  the  parts  of  the  talk  :  all  should  be  bridged  over. 

Careful  study  of  any  subject  selected  will  reveal  an 
arrangement  of  the  parts  which  might  be  called  a  natural 
order,  an  order  which  brings  out  clearly  the  central  idea, 
and  which  makes  it  easy  to  connect  the  various  parts,  thus 
developing  the  clearest  picture. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Prepare  a  descriptive  talk  on  one  of  these  subjects,  introduc- 
ing it  briefly,  stating  the  point  of  view,  and  grouping  the  elements 
of  the  description  around  a  central  feature  or  idea. 

1.  The  city  of  Amsterdam.  6.  A  fruit  orchard. 

2.  A  college.  7.  A  factory. 

3.  A  man,  to  be  recognized  at  a  station.  8.  A  storm. 

4.  An  old-fashioned  parlor.  9.  A  theater. 

5.  A  library.  10.  A  harvest  scene. 

2.  Prepare  and  give  in  class  a  description,  making  one  of  the 
following  the  central  thought  or  feature  : 

1.  A  camp  fire.  6.  A  man  swimming. 

2.  Cold.  7.   Hilarity. 

3.  Heat.  8.  Activity. 

4.  A  bareheaded  man.  9.  A  tree. 

5.  A  dog.  10.  A  bright  light. 


THE  CONCLUSION  97 

3.  a.  Prepare  a  complete  outline  for  one  of  the  following  de- 
scriptions, taking  particular  care  to  arrange  the  parts  in  a  sensible 
order.    Bring  the  outline  to  class  for  criticism. 

b.  Give  the  complete  description  in  class. 

1.  A  new  type  of  street  car.  6.  An  aeroplane. 

2.  A  bedroom.  7.  A  farmyard. 

3.  A  certain  animal.  8.  A  certain  man  or  woman. 

4.  A  playground.  9.  A  house. 

5.  A  locomotive.  10.  A  city. 

The  Conclusion.  The  conclusion,  may  give  in  brief  form 
a  general  impression  of  the  object  described.  It  may  ex- 
press the  thought  we  have  as  we  look  back  for  a  final  view 
in  leaving.  It  may  strikingly  summarize  the  description, 
touching  again  the  interest  of  the  subject,  the  point  of 
view,  the  central  idea,  and  the  important  parts  or  charac- 
teristics. It  may  express  the  purpose  or  significance  of 
the  object,  or  the  pleasure  we  have  had  in  seeing  it. 
Always  it  should  be  concerned  with  large  features  and  not 
with  insignificant  details.  For  example,  we  might  conclude 
a  description  of  the  Tower  of  London  as  follows : 

My  place  on  the  bridge  gave  me  the  whole  picture  at  once  :  the 
semicircle  of  buildings,  the  moat,  the  central  building,  the  river  in 
the  foreground,  and  the  city  beyond.  It  was  an  impressive  and 
satisfying  picture,  in  spite  of  the  horrible  associations  of  the  place. 
I  shall  always  be  glad  that  I  saw  it. 

EXERCISE 

a.  Give  the  concluding  sentence  or  sentences  of  descriptions 
based  upon  three  of  the  following  topics.  If  necessary,  find  out 
from  friends  or  books  what  arc  the  disUnctive  features  or  leading 
impressions. 


98  DESCRIPTIONS 

b.  Prepare  a  complete  talk  of  description  on  one  of  the  subjects. 


1. 

A  lighthpuse. 

6. 

A  parade. 

2. 

The  boulevards  of  Paris. 

7. 

An  auction. 

3. 

A  monument. 

8. 

A  wireless  station. 

4. 

A  Dutch  windmill. 

9. 

A  telephone  stadon 

5. 

Antwerp. 

10. 

London  Bridge. 

Helps  in  Description.  Good  description  requires  an  appro- 
priate use  of  words.  'Fine,'  'nice,'  and  'pretty'  will  not 
paint  distinct  pictures.  (See  Chapter  IV,  in  which  we  have 
discussed  how  to  increase  one's  vocabulary.)  Another  im- 
portant help  in  effective  description  is  the  use  of  draw- 
ings and  pictures.  Books  of  description  are  usually  well 
supplied  with  these  aids.  Bring  to  class  anything  that  will 
make  the  description  more  vivid  :  maps,  blue  prints,  plans, 
charts,  pictures,  photographs,  models,  samples,  or  actual 
objects. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Study  the  following  description  in  the  light  of  what  you 
have  learned.  Be  prepared  to  criticize  it,  pointing  out  its  strong 
points,  and  its  defects  if  there  are  any. 

On  my  way  to  the  Colosseum  I  crossed  the  Capitoline  Hill,  and  de- 
scended into  the  Roman  Forum  by  the  broad  staircase  that  leads  to  the 
triumphal  arch  of  Septimius  Severus.  Close  upon  my  right  hand  stood 
the  three  remaining  columns  of  the  Temple  of  the  Thunderer,  and  the 
beautiful  Ionic  portico  of  the  Temple  of  Concord  —  their  base  in 
shadow  and  the  bright  moonbeam  striking  aslant  upon  the  broken 
entablature  above.  Before  me  rose  the  Phocian  Column,  an  isolated 
shaft,  like  a  thin  vapor  hanging  in  the  air,  scarce  visible ;  and  far  to 
the  left,  the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Antonio  and  Faustina,  and  the 
three  colossal  arches  of  the  Temple  of  Peace  —  dim,  shadowy,  indis- 
tinct—  seemed  to  melt  away  and  mingle  with  the  sky.  I  crossed  the 
Forum  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine,  and  ascending  the  Via  Sacra,  passed 
beneath  the  Arch  of  Titus.  From  this  point  I  saw  below  me  the  gigan- 
tic outline  of  the  Colosseum,  like  a  cloud  resting  upon  the  earth.    As  I 


TECHNICAL  DESCRIPTIONS  99 

descended  the  hillside,  it  grew  more  broad  and  high,  —  more  definite 
in  its  form,  and  yet  more  grand  in  its  dimensions,  —  till,  from  the  vale 
in  which  it  stands  encompassed  by  three  of  the  Seven  Hills  of  Rome, 
—  the  Palatine,  the  Caelian.  and  the  Esquiline,  —  the  majestic  ruin  in 
all  its  solitar)^  grandeur  "  swelled  vast  to  heaven."  —  Longfellow, 
"  Outre-Mer  " 

2.  Prepare  complete  descriptions  on  one  of  the  following  sub- 
jects, and  use  in  the  presentation  some  of  the  helps  to  efficient 
description : 

1.  The  Eiffel  tower.  6.  San  Diego  harbor. 

2.  Los  Angeles  harbor.  -7.  New  York  bridges. 


t>^ 


3.  The  Boston  subway  system.  8.  A  collie. 

4.  The  Chicago  elevated  loop.  9.  The  Dipper. 

5.  A  park.  10.  Mahogany. 

Technical  Descriptions.  Some  oral  descriptions  may  be 
simplified  and  made  more  accurate  by  taking  the  technical 
point  of  view.  For  instance,  if  an  architect  is  describing  a 
schoolhouse  to  a  contractor,  he  can  use  very  different  words 
from  those  which  would  be  suitable  for  a  school  principal 
to  employ  in  describing  the  same  building.  The  differ- 
ence between  a  technical  and  a  general  description  is  not 
merely  in  the  choice  of  terms  ;  it  lies  also  in  the  purpose 
of  the  description  :  the  architect  desires  to  be  exact,  while 
the  school  principal  aims  to  bring  out  general  characteristics 
and  impressions. 

Technical  descriptions  can  often  be  effective  only  with 
the  help  of  written  or  printed  records  of  some  kind.  The 
"  description  of  the  property "  in  a  deed  to  real  estate 
gives  the  lot,  block,  and  tract  number,  and  the  name  of 
the  city,  county,  and  state.  It  may  include  dimensions 
and  references  to  bench  marks  and  surveys.  The  specifica- 
tions which  accompany  the  plans  for  a  building  contain  an 


lOO  DESCRIPTIONS 

interpretation  of  the  plans,  and  show  what  is  required  in  the 
quality  of  lumber,  glass,  hardware,  brick,  cement,  electric 
and  gas  fixtures,  plumbing,  painting,  finish,  etc.  The  de- 
scription of  a  man,  as  kept  by  the  register  of  voters,  includes 
his  age,  color,  dimensions,  residence,  occupation,  and  any 
peculiar  marks  of  identification. 

In  most  cases,  to  be  useful,  the  technical  description 
must  be  written,  but  the  technical  point  of  viezv  is  often 
serviceable  in  oral  descriptions.  Two  questions  must  be 
considered  in  deciding  whether  or  not  to  make  the  descrip- 
tion technical :  Is  it  the  purpose  of  the  talk  to  give  an 
exact  description }    Will  the  audience  understand  the  terms 

used } 

EXERCISES 

1.  Study  the  following  technical  description,  and  come  to  class 
prepared  to  discuss  its  merits  and  defects. 

A   CALIFORNIA   BUNGALOW 

The  location  of  the  house  under  consideration  is  on  Lot  Four, 
Block  Three,  243  Grove  St.,  City  of  Marvin,  County  of  Los  Angeles, 
State  of  California.  The  lot  is  50'  by  160',  sloping  to  the  front.  Street 
work  is  completed  and  paid  for.  Connections  are  provided  for  water, 
gas,  electricity,  and  sewer.  The  soil  is  sandy  loam.  The  place  has  ten 
fruit  trees  of  standard  varieties,  four  years  old  and  bearing.  There  are 
also  the  usual  vines  and  flowers. 

The  house  is  a  California  bungalow,  cedar  shingle  roof.  It  is  24' 
by  28'  in  size,  and  has  four  rooms,  bath,  front  porch,  and  screened 
sleeping  porch.  The  living  room  is  14'  by  iS'.  The  dining  room  is 
partially  separated  from  the  living  room  by  a  fireplace  set  diagonally 
in  the  corner  of  the  living  room,  and  by  a  bookcase.  The  dining  room 
is  12'  by  14'.  Back  of  the  living  room  is  the  bedroom,  10'  by  12',  with 
a  clothes  closet  4'  by  4'.  The  bathroom  is  6'  by  &.  Back  of  the  dining 
room  is  the  kitchen,  i  o'  by  1 2'. 

The  house  has  several  built-in  features :  window  seats,  bookcase, 
china  closet,  cooling  shaft,  folding  bed,  chiffonier,  and  cupboards. 


TECHNICAL  DESCRIPTIONS  loi 

The  plumbing  is  first-class,  with  a  30-gallon  tank  and  gas  heater. 
The  house  is  well  lighted  with  incandescent  electric  lights. 

The  interior  finish  is  natural  redwood,  unpainted.  The  kitchen  and 
bath  are  finished  in  pine,  varnished  in  natural  color. 

The  house  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  of  its  kind. 

2.  a.  Discuss  the  circumstances  under  which  a  description  of 
each  of  the  following  subjects  should  be  technical. 

b.  Prepare  and  give  a  general  description. 

c.  Prepare  and  give  a  technical  description. 

1.  An  oak  tree.  6.  A  dress. 

2.  A  gas  stove.  7.  A  rneal. 

3.  An  automobile.  8.  The  interior  finish  of  a  house. 

4.  A  watch.  9.  A  piece  of  furniture. 

5.  A  trunk.  10.  A  street. 

3 .   Give  a  technical  description  of  one  of  the  f ollow^ing  : 


1. 

An  overcoat. 

6. 

A  bellflower  apple 

2. 

A  typewriter. 

7. 

A  camel. 

3. 

A  garage. 

8. 

A  cedar  chest. 

4. 

A  mountain  range. 

9. 

A  watch. 

5. 

A  cornet. 

10. 

A  book. 

4.  Prepare  a  talk  —  narration  or  description,  or  both  —  to  give 
in  class,  selecting  the  subject  yourself.  Try  to  find  a  topic  that 
will  be  interesting  to  your  hearers.  If  you  select  a  travelogue, 
interesting  combinations  of  narration  and  description  may  be 
made.    The  following  may  be  suggestive : 

1.  Buildings.  6.  Picnics,  parties,  and  social  events. 

2.  Parks.  7.  Celebrations. 

3.  Ocean  scenes.  8.  Personal  experiences. 

4.  Towns  and  cities.  9.  Excidng  events. 

5.  Streets,  squares,  and  10.  Historical  events. 

crossings. 


CHAPTER  VII 
SIMPLE   BUSINESS  TALKS 

The  Need  for  Business  Talks.  More  and  more  in  busi- 
ness affairs  a  salesman  or  an  agent  or  a  manager  has  to 
appear  before  several  persons,  often  a  committee,  to  present 
a  definite  proposition.  Thus  an  agent  for  books  or  maps 
may  address  a  committee  of  teachers ;  the .  bidders  on  a 
fire  engine  may  talk  to  the  city  council ;  an  automobile 
salesman  may  have  to  speak  before  the  directors  of  a 
business  corporation ;  an  architect  may  talk  to  the  school 
committee  in  favor  of  a  certain  type  of  schoolhouse. 

No  matter  what  our  occupation  is  to  be,  we  shall  some- 
times need  to  persuade  others  just  as  the  business  man 
does,  even  though  the  conditions  may  be  somewhat  different. 
Therefore  in  our  school  practice  we  should  include  the  busi- 
ness talk.  In  a  later  chapter  we  shall  discuss  ther interview, 
but  here  we  shall  restrict  our  attention  to  well-arranged, 
complete  talks.  Imagine  yourselves,  therefore,  each  a  repre- 
sentative of  a  certain  business  firm,  or  each  an  exponent 
of  a  business  idea,  and  let  the  Oral  English  class  act  as  the 
committee  to  which  you  are  addressing  your  proposition. 

The  Appeal  to  Interest  and  Service.  The  speech  pre- 
senting a  business  proposition  should  begin  with  an  intro- 
duction which  aims  to  interest  the  listener  in  what  is  to 
follow.  Although  the  element  of  interest  is  very  necessary, 
it  should  not  be  aroused  by  the  cheap  tricks  of  the  street 

I02 


THE  OPENING  WORDS  103 

seller,  nor  by  any  kind  of  exaggerated  statement.  What 
should  we  think  of  a  man  who  began  his  talk,  "'  I  come 
before  you  to  offer  you  the  opportunity  of  your  lives,"  or, 
"This  is  the  best  piece  of  land  on  the  face  of  the  globe"? 
Even  if  doubtful  methods  are  sometimes  used  by  successful 
business  men,  the  student  must  remember  that  he  is  build- 
ing for  the  future,  and  that  questionable  methods  of  adver- 
tising are  rapidly  passing.  The  man  who  uses  such  means 
has  to  meet  suspicion  instead  of  open-minded  attention. 
There  is  left,  then,  only  the  same  method  for  arousing 
interest  which  we  have  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter : 
connecting  the  proposition  with  thoughts  already  in  the 
minds  of  the  hearers.  This  connection  may  be  made  by 
showing  the  hearers  that  they  have  a  need  which  you  can 
satisfy.  For  example,  if  you  were  giving  a  talk  in  favor  of 
a  particular  book  on  music,  you  might  begin  :  "  Almost  all 
of  you  would  like  to  become  better  acquainted  with  good 
music.  Even  if  you  are  not  interested  in  music,  at  least 
you  have  friends  who  are,  and  you  would  be  doing  them 
a  kindness  to  call  their  attention  to  this  book." 

Good  business  is  founded  upon  service  rendered  and 
mutual  benefits,  and  the  introduction  may  well  take  that 
idea  as  its  basis.  Thus  the  introduction  to  the  business 
talk  should  call  attention  to  the  need  that  exists,  and 
should  then  suggest  that  the  proposition  to  be  presented 
will  satisfy  that  need. 

Any  attempt  to  sell  goods  when  they  clearly  are  not 
wanted  should  be  avoided.  People  are  less  and  less  de- 
ceived by  such  methods,  and  more  and  more  the  salesman's 
aim  must  be  to  try  to  win  a  satisfied  customer  rather  than 
merely  to  make  a  sale. 


I04  SIMPLE  BUSINESS  TALKS 

EXERCISES 

1.  Criticize  each  of  these  opening  sentences  either  favorably 
or  unfavorably : 

1.  We  intend  to  show  you  something  new  under  the  sun. 

2.  In  presenting  this  plan  for  your  approval,  we  guarantee  that  all 
who  accept  it  will  be  satisfied. 

3.  Every  person  in  this  magnificent  audience  ought  to  interest 
himself  in  this  splendid  opportunity. 

4.  No  person  can  afford  to  be  without  a  pistol  in  the  house. 

5.  Everyone  wants  to  know  about  aeroplanes,  and  we  think  we 
have  here  the  best  book  yet  published  on  that  subject. 

6.  Our  stock  of  seeds  and  plants  is  so  large  and  complete  that  we 
can  meet  all  requirements. 

7.  Probably  all  of  you  believe  in  the  saying,  "  See  America  first." 
I  am  here  to  tell  you  how  you  may  accomplish  this. 

8.  I  am  indeed  pleased  to  have  this  opportunity  to  appear  be- 
fore you. 

9.  No  one  can  afford  to  be  indifferent  to  the  great  political  prob- 
lems confronting  this  nation  to-day.  This  lecture  has  for  its  subject 
what  has  been  called  the  problem  of  the  hour. 

10.  We  are  here  this  evening  representing  three  thousand  citizens 
who  are  interested  in  having  a  high  school  built  in  our  section  of 
the  city. 

2.  Give  opening  sentences  for  three  talks  the  object  of  each 
of  which  is  the  selling  of  one  of  the  following  articles : 

1.  A  map  of  the  United  States.  6.  A  book  of  puzzles. 

2.  Tickets  to  a  football  game.  7.  An  automobile. 

3.  An  electric  battery.  8.  A  bicycle. 

4.  An  office  desk.  9.  A  dictionary. 

5.  A  dog  or  other  pet.  10.  Tickets  for  an  entertainment. 

The  Description  or  Explanation.  After  the  introductory 
words  comes  the  presentation  of  the  details  of  the  propo- 
sition itself.  These  details  will  concern  two  main  topics : 
first,  a  description  or  explanation ;  and  second,  the  terms. 


THE  DETAILS  105 

Telling  the  Advantages.  If  a  person  is  giving  a  talk 
for  the  purpose  of  interesting  someone  in  gas  stoves,  he 
must,  as  soon  as  his  introduction  is  finished,  give  a  careful 
description  of  the  particular  stove  for  which  he  is  agent. 
If  he  is  selling  a  new  kind  of  cement,  he  must  tell  how 
it  is  used.  Thus,  in  presenting  a  business  proposition,  he 
must  both  describe  and  explain.  To  do  this  well  the  stu- 
dent should  study  the  principles  of  good  description  and 
explanation. 

Showing  the  Goods.  Above  all,  for  a  business  talk,  he 
should  make  use  of  the  aids  to  presentation  already  dis- 
cussed (Chapters  I  and  VI)  :  diagrams,  models,  etc.  No 
business  man  would  think  of  tr)ung  to  sell  books,  rings, 
horses,  or  automobiles  without  showing  the  goods.  The 
architect  in  selling  plans  for  a  house  has  something  tan- 
gible to  aid  him.  The  seed  merchant  shows  pictures  of  the 
grown  plants  ;  the  inventor,  diagrams  and  printed  circulars  ; 
and  the  manufacturer,  tables  of  figures.  So  the  student 
should,  when  possible,  show  the  actual  article,  pointing  out 
its  characteristics  and  demonstrating  its  operation,  even 
offering  it  to  the  audience  for  their  personal  inspection. 

Emphasizing  Special  Details.  Attractive  details  should 
receive  special  attention.  Many  an  automobile  purchaser 
has  selected  his  car  largely  because  of  some  detail  of  con- 
struction which  caught  his  attention  and  held  it.  Such 
details  often  seem  insignificant  to  one  familiar  with  the 
subject,  yet  companies  learn  to  make  them  special  features 
of  their  advertisements  because  they  attract  attention,  and 
because  they  offer  a  means  of  contrast  with  a  Competing 
proposition.  Business  talks  constantly  use  the  idea  of  con- 
trast.   An  agent  can  be  more  than  fair  to  opponents,  and 


Io6  SIMPLE  BUSINESS  TALKS 

yet  show  how  his  plan  avoids  the  disadvantages  of  other 
plans,  and  how  it  is  better  than  any  other.  Thus  a  speaker 
who  advocates  a  special  kind  of  roofing  paper  may  point 
out  the  defects  of  roofing  papers  in  the  past,  and  the  efforts 
made  by  his  company  to  obviate  these  difficulties. 

References.  Actual  instances  of  success  should  be  enu- 
merated. The  speaker  may  tell  about  the  tests  the  article 
has  already  had,  and  the  results.  Testimonials,  names, 
and  addresses  may  be  offered,  so  that  anybody  may  obtain 
disinterested  information. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  a  business  talk  on  one  of  the  topics  below.  Make  use 
of  concrete  helps  in  your  presentation. 

1.  A  clothes  tree.  6.  A  painting. 

2.  A  particular  kind  of  gloves.  7.  An  encyclopedia. 

3.  Tickets  for  an  excursion.  8.  Accommodations  at  a  hotel. 

4.  Subscription  to  a  magazine.  9.  A  special  kind  of  paper, 

5.  A  house  and  lot.  10.  Seed  for  hay  or  grain. 

2.  Demonstrate  one  of  the  following  as  a  business  proposition, 
making  your  talk  as  convincing  as  possible : 

1.  A  camera.  6.  A  hinge. 

2.  A  cultivator.  7.  A  cornet  or  other  instrument. 

3.  A  letter  file.  8.  An  electric  alarm. 

4.  A  glove  cleaner.  9.  An  egg  beater. 

5.  A  music  stand.  10.  A  printing  frame. 

3.  Make  inquiry  among  the  stores  of  your  town  about  articles 
which  you  might  describe  and  demonstrate.  Ask  permission  to 
borrow  samples  to  use  in  class.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  char- 
acteristics, processes,  distinctive  qualities,  successes,  etc.  Select 
one  article  and  prepare  yourself  to  describe  and  explain  it.  The 
following  are  suggested : 


THE  TERMS  OR  AGREEMENT  107 


1. 

A  typewriter. 

11. 

An  ice-cream  freezer, 

2. 

A  typewriter  desk. 

12. 

An  electric  iron. 

3. 

Furniture  polish. 

13. 

An  alarm  clock. 

4. 

A  window  fastener. 

14. 

Shoes. 

5. 

A  motor  cycle. 

15. 

A  folding  umbrella. 

6. 

A  baseball  (show  the  inside). 

16. 

A  raincoat. 

7. 

A  washing  machine. 

17. 

A  lock. 

8. 

An  ice  chest. 

18. 

A  sewing  machine. 

9. 

A  phonograph. 

19. 

A  trunk  or  valise. 

.0. 

A  gas  range. 

20. 

A  rug. 

The  Terms  of  the  Proposition.  -After  the  listeners  thor- 
oughly understand  what  the  article  is  and  how  it  works, 
they  must  be  told  the  terms  of  sale.  Often,  however,  there 
are  times  when  it  might  be  an  advantage  to  give  some 
hint  as  to  the  price  at  the  beginning  of  the  talk.  Suppose, 
for  example,  that  a  speaker  is  advertising  a  set  of  thirty 
books  of  the  world's  best  literature  for  ten  dollars.  He 
should  hint  in  his  introduction,  as  an  added  reason  for 
interest,  that  the  books  are  offered  at  a  greatly  reduced 
price.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  justification  for  exactly 
the  opposite  procedure.  The  low  price  of  the  books  may 
be  kept  as  a  pleasant  surprise  for  the  end  of  the  talk ;  or 
in  the  case  of  some  expensive  article,  the  price,  which 
might  seem  a  disadvantage,  may  be  held  in  reserve  until 
the  description  and  explanation  have  shown  that  it  is  not 
excessive.  Tact  and  judgment  must  therefore  be  used. 
The  speaker  must  present  the  conditions  and  terms  at  the 
moment  that  they  will  be  most  favorably  received  by  the 
hearers.  He  must  especially  avoid  giving  the  impression 
that  the  terms  are  purposely  withheld  until  the  last  possi- 
ble moment;  this  would  be  fatal  to  the  confidence  upon 
which  good  business  is  built. 


I08  SIMPLE  BUSINESS  TALKS 

Being  Definite.  The  terms  of  agreement  are  always  to 
be  made  definite,  so  that  the  prospective  buyer  will  know 
exactly  what  he  may  expect,  and  what  is  expected  of  him. 
In  the  case  of  machinery,  real  estate,  and,  indeed,  of  many 
things  purchased,  exact  descriptions  are  furnished  by  the 
salesman.  These  descriptions  are  called  specifications,  and 
cover  every  detail  of  construction  and  appearance.  The 
statement  of  the  terms  may  include  the  price,  the  time 
of  payment  or  payments,  the  time  and  manner  of  delivery, 
and  the  rate  of  interest.  In  the  case  of  real  estate,  the 
speaker  should  follow  the  example  of  the  best  dealers  by 
telling  what  assessments  will  fall  due  for  improvements 
made  or  planned.  In  the  case  of  a  piano  or  other  large 
article,  the  time  of  delivery  should  be  specified,  and  by 
whom  the  freight  is  to  be  paid.  In  the  case  of  a  piece 
of  work,  the  time  for  beginning  and  for  completing  it  must 
be  included.  Sometimes  it  may  be  stated  that  an  article 
can  be  returned  if  it  proves  unsatisfactory.  When  the  offer 
to  sell  holds  good  for  only  a  limited  time,  this  should  be 
definitely  understood. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  a  man  has  been  demonstrating 
a  vacuum  cleaner.    He  may  state  the  terms  as  follows  : 

We  agree  to  lend  this  machine  and  all  these  parts  for  a  week's 
trial,  with  no  expense  to  you.  If  you  decide  to  keep  them,  you 
are  to  pay  us  one  dollar  a  week,  without  interest,  for  thirty-five 
weeks.  If  for  any  reason  you  wish  to  return  the  machine  within 
one  year  from  the  time  you  make  your  first  payment,  we  will 
allow  you  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  total  payments  you  have 
made  on  it.    We  agree  to  keep  it  in  working  order  for  two  years. 


THE  TERMS  OR  AGREEMENT  109 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Frame  sentences  for  use  in  the  early  part  of  talks  on 
three  of  the  following  propositions,  and  hint  that  the  price 
charged  is  not  a  low  one. 

6.  Give  one  of  the  talks,  complete. 

1.  A  bookcase.  6.  Orange  trees. 

2.  A  Bible.  7.  A  fountain  pen. 

3.  A  piano.  8.  An  automobile  tire. 

4.  A  piece  of  velvet.  9.  Gasoline. 

5.  Butter.  10.  A  trip  to  South  America. 

2.  a.  A  contractor  nearly  lost  a  street  contract  because  his  bid 
was  so  much  lower  than  the  others  that  the  city  council  thought 
he  could  not  be  a  "  responsible  bidder."  He  explained  that  his 
company  was  in  the  habit  of  rushing  work  and  could  therefore 
save  time  and  money.  He  got  the  contract  and  made  good 
his  word.  In  a  similar  way  be  prepared  to  state  before  the  class 
good  reasons  for  low  prices  in  three  of  the  following  cases. 

b.  Give  one  of  the  talks,  complete. 

1.  A  secondhand  violin.  6.  Furs. 

2.  A  diamond  ring.  7.  Breakfast  food. 

3.  Point  lace.  8.  Tickets  to  a  concert. 

4.  A  cow.  9.  Eggs. 

5.  Paint.  10.  A  baseball  glove. 

3.  a.  Decide,  in  three  of  the  following  cases,  whether  or  not 
any  hint  about  the  price  should  be  given  at  first ;  be  prepared  to 
give  your  reasons. 

b.   (Vive  the  complete  business  proposition  for  one  topic. 

1.  A  low-priced  suit.  6.  A  high-priced  building  site. 

2.  A  low-priced  set  of  carpenter's       7.  A  high-priced  blanket. 

tools.  8.  A  high-priced  ostrich  feather. 

3.  -V  low-priced  table.  9.  A  high-priced  chair. 

4.  Low-priced  pencils.  10.  High-priced  music  lessons. 

5.  Low-priced  tea. 


no  SIMPLE  BUSINESS  TALKS 

4.  a.  Prepare  and  state  before  the  class  the  terms  of  some 
proposition  suggested  by  one  of  the  following. 
b.  Give  one  complete  talk. 


1. 

A  dozen  photographs. 

11. 

Wall  paper. 

2. 

A  fruit  orchard. 

12. 

A  turning  lathe, 

3. 

Shares  in  a  mine. 

13. 

Digging  a  well. 

4. 

A  ship. 

14. 

A  windmill. 

5. 

A  correspondence  course. 

15. 

Making  a  dress. 

6. 

Renting  a  house. 

16. 

An  excursion. 

7.  Painting  a  house.  17.  Life  insurance. 

8.  A  set  of  literature.  18.  A  motor  boat. 

9.  A  motor  cultivator.  19.   Floor  space  in  an  exposition. 
10.  Subscription  to  a  telephone.  20.  Service  as  a  chauffeur. 

Concluding  the  Talk.  We  have  so  far  considered  three 
parts  of  the  business  proposition :  the  introduction,  the 
description  or  explanation,  and  the  terms.  The  talk  may 
now  be  ended  with  a  sentence  summarizing  the  attractions 
of  the  proposition,  followed  perhaps  by  directions  for  ob- 
taining further  information.  The  summary  should  be  clear 
and  crisp  like  the  following : 

These  trees  are  evergreen ;  they  have  a  rapid  growth ;  they 
require  little  attention ;  they  withstand  the  wind  and  weather ; 
and,  on  account  of  fortunate  circumstances,  we  are  able  to  offer 
five  hundred  of  them  for  immediate  delivery  at  twenty-five  per 
cent  below  the  usual  price. 

The  directions  for  obtaining  further  information  must 
depend  on  circumstances.  The  speaker  may  arrange  for 
a  trip  to  see  the  property,  or  he  may  obtain  the  names  and 
addresses  of  those  who  wish  literature  on  the  subject,  or 
he  may  announce  opportunity  for  immediate  personal  inter- 
view. Telephone  numbers,  addresses,  hours,  etc,  must  be 
given  with  great  distinctness.    To  the  sentence  of  summary 


ANSWERING  QUESTIONS  III 

given   above,    something  like   the  following  may  therefore 

be  added  : 

We  should  be  glad  to  have  any  or  all  of  you  call  at  our  nursery, 
3327  Broadway.  Or  if  you  will  let  us  know  in  advance,  we  shall 
be  glad  to  call  for  you.  We  can  also  show  you  some  of  the  streets 
which  were  planted  with  these  trees  two  years  ago.  Our  telephone 
number  is  North  229. 

EXERCISE 

Give  conclusions  for  two  of  the  following  propositions : 

1.  Selling  a  pair  of  skates.  6.  Renting  tents  for  a  camp. 

2.  Installing  gymnasium  apparatus.     7."  Installing  speaking  tubes. 

3.  Furnishing  a  hotel  with  ice.  8.  Selling  a  motor  truck. 

4.  Wiring  a  house  for  lights.  9.  Selling  a  set  of  Shakespeare. 

5.  Selling  a  gas  heater.  10.  Selling  a  set  of  knives  and 

forks. 

Answering  Questions.  Always  before  the  speaker  with- 
draws, he  should  say  that  he  would  be  glad  to  answer  any 
questions  about  the  proposition.  The  talk  should  be  so  well 
planned,  of  course,  that  most  questions  will  have  been 
anticipated.  If  a  great  many  questions  about  the  proposi- 
tion itself  are  asked,  it  shows  that  the  speaker  has  failed 
in  his  presentation.  For  example,  a  fire-hose  contractor 
should  have  anticipated  the  question  :  "  How  soon  can  your 
company  deliver  the  hose  ?  " 

But  there  are  other  questions  which  indicate  a  great 
interest  aroused,  an  interest  which  demands  wider  infor- 
mation. A  tree  expert,  who  was  once  presenting  a  park 
proposition  to  a  city  council,  was  asked  to  explain  why  it 
is  that  tree  trunks  sometimes  grow  out  in  knotty  bunches 
ju.st  where  they  meet  the  ground.  Such  questions  show 
a  speaker's  success,  because  they  prove  that  real  interest 
has  been  awakened. 


112  SIMPLE  BUSINESS  TALKS 

EXERCISE 

In  each  of  the  following  propositions  should  the  speaker  have 
anticipated  the  question  ?  Talk  them  over  with  older  people,  if 
you  wish.    Give  reasons  for  your  opinion. 

1.  (Building  a  boat)  "  What  metal  do  you  intend  to  use  for  the 
fittings?" 

2.  (Repairing  an  automobile  engine)  "  What  kind  of  lubricating  oil 
do  you  use  ?  " 

3.  (Building  a  barn)  "  What  color  shall  you  use  for  the  priming 
coat?" 

4.  (Furnishing  transportation  for  a  picnic)  "  Will  the  car  be  kept  at 
the  picnic  grounds  all  day  ?  " 

5.  (Putting  a  handle  in  a  shovel  blade)  "What  kind  of  wood  is  most 
often  used  for  shovel  handles?" 

Choosing  Subjects.  Business  propositions  vary  in  com- 
plexity from  the  oral  advertisement  of  the  newsboy  shouting, 
"  Papers,  one  cent !  Full  account  of  the  election  !  "  to  the 
speech  and  demonstration  made  by  an  agent  selling  a  fire 
engine  to  a  city  board  of  trustees.  In  the  school  work 
begin  with  something  simple,  such,  for  instance,  as  an  offer 
to  sell  a  secondhand  book.  Later,  try  a  more  ambitious 
proposition.  Select  the  subject  carefully ;  study  the  article 
or  process  ;  practice  the  parts  of  the  speech  —  introduction, 
description  and  explanation,  terms,  and  conclusion  —  and 
theri  be  prepared  to  give  the  complete  proposition.  Refuse 
to  present  a  proposition  which  you  cannot  wholly  indorse. 

Many  subjects  will  suggest  themselves  to  you  in  your 
daily  observation.  You  should  also  try  others  entirely  out- 
side your  experience  for  the  purpose  of  widening  your 
vision.  If  you  are  studying  the  various  occupations  so  as  to 
decide  which  you  shall  take  up,  you  will  find  it  helpful  to 
select  for  a  talk  some  proposition  suggested  by  this  study. 


CHOOSING  SUBJECTS 


113 


EXERCISE 


Prepare  and  deliver  a  business  talk  on  one  of  these  subjects, 
or  on  another  of  your  own  choice. 


1. 

An  emblem  watch  fob. 

21. 

A  jewelry  business. 

2. 

A  wireless  receiver. 

22. 

A  furniture  store. 

3. 

A  chest  of  drawers. 

23. 

A  hardware  business. 

4. 

Poultr>\ 

24. 

A  restaurant  business. 

5. 

A  baking  pan. 

25. 

A  barber  shop. 

6. 

A  gas  engine. 

26. 

A  candy  store. 

7. 

A  bell. 

27. 

An  option  on  a  lot. 

8. 

Wire  fencing. 

28. 

A  bathhouse  business. 

9. 

A  potted  plant. 

29. 

A  business  building. 

10. 

An  oven. 

30. 

A  lease  'for  an  apartment  house. 

11. 

An  aquarium. 

31. 

A  truck  garden. 

12. 

Hoisdng  apparatus. 

32. 

A  wheat  crop. 

13. 

Weighing  scales. 

33. 

Plowing  a  field. 

14. 

Field  glasses. 

34. 

Cutting  hay. 

15. 

An  induction  coil. 

35. 

Installing  an  elevator. 

16. 

A  load  of  firewood. 

36. 

Building  a  garage. 

17. 

Subscription  to  a  magazine. 

37. 

Stock  in  a  shoe  factory. 

18. 

An  adas. 

38. 

Stock  in  a  real-estate  company. 

19. 

An    advertisement    in    the 

39. 

Stock  in  a  bank. 

school  paper. 

40. 

Municipal  bonds. 

20. 

Planting  a  lawn. 

CHAPTER  VIII 
STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

Style  is  as  important  a  consideration  in  oral  as  in  written 
composition.  Many  of  the  principles  of  good  expression  are 
common  to  both  spoken  and  written  English,  Only  the 
mechanics  differ,  and  even  these,  as  we  shall  see,  are  closely 
related.  The  treatment  in  this  chapter  will  emphasize  some 
of  the  principles  which  are  of  special  significance  in  making 
the  style  of  a  speech  attractive,  forceful,  and  clear.  How 
the  voice  can  help  will  be  reserved  for  Chapter  X. 

How  to  avoid  Awkwardness.  The  speaker  must  think 
ahead  as  he  talks  even  more  carefully  than  does  the  writer 
as  he  writes.  If  an  error  is  made  on  paper,  it  is  possible 
to  correct  it  easily.  But  an  oral  error,  even  if  it  is  at 
once  corrected,  is  noticed  by  the  hearers.  An  earnest  effort 
must  therefore  be  made  to  avoid  errors  of  speech,  and  to 
this  end  the  student  must  cultivate  a  ready  mind  which 
will  grasp  the  whole  sentence  before  the  opening  words  are 
spoken.  The  speaker  who  stumbles  through  his  sentences, 
making  his  way  only  by  means  of  awkward  expressions  and 
errors  of  construction,  is  often  one  who  starts  his  sentences 
without  thinking  how  he  will  finish  them. 

The  student  must  develop  this  power  to  think  ahead. 
He  may  begin  on  short  sentences.  He  may  think  that  he 
can  easily  hold  in  mind  the  thought  expressed  by  six  or 

114 


CLEARNESS  1 1  5 

eight  words,  but  language  plays  queer  tricks  even  in  short 
sentences.    For  instance,  consider  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Only  Jane  fried  eggs  to-day. 

2.  Jane  only  fried  eggs  to-day. 

3.  Jane  fried  only  eggs  to-day. 

4.  Jane  fried  eggs  only  to-day. 

5.  Jane  fried  eggs  to-day  only. 

6.  Jane  fried  eggs  to-day. 

It  is  obvious  that  although  stress,  pitch,  and  pause  may  help 
to  determine  the  meaning,  the  speaker  must  also  arrange 
the  order  of  his  words  beforehand  if  he  is  to  avoid  being 
misunderstood.  Into  the  sentence  which  has  not  been 
planned  ambiguities  slip.  '  Send  us  both  books  '  may  seem 
clear  to  the  speaker,  but  his  hearers  may  interpret  it  in 
two  ways  :  '  Send  both  of  us  books, '  or  '  Send  us  both  of 
the  books.'  Each  of  the  following  sentences  is  somewhat 
awkward  because  the  speaker  has  not  thought  out  the 
best  order  of  words  : 

1.  He,  followed  by  his  dog,  climbed  the  hill. 

2.  He  is  one  of  the  men  we  may  well  always  be  proud  of. 

3.  The  only  way  is  to  everlastingly  keep  at  it. 

4.  It  is,  barring  accidents,  certain  that  we  shall  be  done  in 
a  month. 

5.  We  probably  shall  in  a  few  days  plant  a  hundred  acres. 

6.  In  order  to  cook  dried  peaches,  they  should  be  soaked 
beforehand  overnight. 

7.  When  he  once  decides  to  do  the  work,  he  can  be  depended 
upon  after  he  begins. 

In  each  of  these  cases  the  speaker  probably  had  a  clear 
idea  in  mind,  but  he  failed  to  plan  the  best  way  to  express 
that  idea. 


Ii6  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE 

Decide  what  meaning  was  intended  to  be  expressed  in  the 
sentences  quoted  above  and  in  those  given  below,  and  revise  them 
so  that  there  can  be  no  misunderstanding.    Give  them  in  class. 

1.  I  have  written  neither  to  mother  nor  father. 

2.  We  are  going  to  hardly  be  able  to  get  there  on  time. 

3.  The  umpire  threw  Will  and  Fred  both  baseballs. 

4.  We  will  only  come  once  more. 

5.  He  is  a  man  who,  whenever  he  had  a  chance,  has,  so  far  as 
possible,  helped  the  poor  always. 

6.  I  like  to  swim  very  much. 

7.  This  is  a  bad  law ;  we  have  too  many  of  them  already. 

8.  Our  subscription  list  contains  more  than  any  paper. 

9.  I  wish  to  talk  to  you  about  the  football  situation  in  my  room. 
10.  We  not  only  saw  London,  but  Paris  also. 

Variety  in  the  Sentence  Structure.  Variety  in  length  and 
form  of  sentences  must  be  the  aim  of  the  student  speaker 
in  his  practice.  If  he  will  experiment  along  this  line  in  his 
schoolroom  talks,  he  will  find  that  his  speaking  becomes 
more  pleasing. 

Varying  the  Length  of  the  Sentences.  Short  sentences 
are  suited  to  the  expression  of  vivid  ideas.  Excited  con- 
versation and  rapid  narration  will  illustrate : 

"  Now  is  our  chance,"  I  shouted.  "  They  can't  make  it,"  said 
a  boy  at  my  elbow.  "  Can't  they  ?  "  said  I.  "  Watch  them  do  it." 
Then  we  began.  First  Jack  stole  second.  Then  Ed  bunted.  The 
ball  rolled  toward  third.  The  pitcher  got  it.  He  glanced  at  Jack 
on  third.  He  threw  to  first,  and  Ed  was  out.  Then  the  catcher 
made  a  wild  jump  for  a  high  throw  and  landed  in  a  cloud  of  dust. 
Jack  had  scored ! 

Long  sentences  are  suited  to  more  involved  thoughts ; 
they  are  necessary  for  the  explanation  of  complex  matters. 


EFFECTIVE  SENTENCES  117 

Simple  facts  may  be  expressed  in  short  sentences ;  the 
explanation  of  these  facts  may  require  longer  ones.  Too 
many  short  sentences  give  the  impression  of  abruptness  of 
speech  ;  too  many  long  ones  strain  the  attention  and  easily 
make  a  talk  tiresome.    Variety  is  the  spice  of  composition. 

For  the  person  who,  child  fashion,  strings  his  statements 
into  long  sentences  by  the  use  of  'and,'  there  is  no  surer 
cure  than  to  give  talks  in  which  he  forces  himself  to  use 
short  sentences,  emphasizing  the  sentence  endings  with  the 
decisive  down  stroke  of  the  voice.   • 

Varying  the  Form  of  the  Sentence.  Consideration  must 
be  given  also  to  the  form  of  the  sentence.  Let  us  illustrate 
the  emphasis  given  to  the  various  ideas  by  the  use  of  the 
periodic,  the  loose,  and  the  balanced  sentence,  and  by 
parallel  structure.  Sometimes  a  speaker  wishes  to  hold 
the  attention  of  his  hearers  in  suspense  —  to  emphasize  the 
thought  by  holding  it  until  the  completion  of  the  sentence  : 

For  wear,  for  looks,  for  price,  for  cheapness  of  operation,  for 
general  road  work,  in  fact  for  all  the  desirable  qualities  which  any 
man  may  ask,  this  car  is  the  best. 

This  is  the  so-called  periodic  sentence. 
At  other  times  the  loose  construction  is  better.    It  often 
gives  the  effect  of  piling  up  and  strengthening  the  evidence  : 

This  car  is  easily  the  best  for  the  money,  because  it  is  strongly 
built,  it  has  a  good  appearance,  its  price  is  reasonable,  and  its  cost 
of  operation  is  small. 

In  some  cases  the  balanced  sentence  is  more  effective 
than  any  other  : 

The  proposal  of  the  Liberal  Party  involves  a  new  expense ;  the 
proposal  of  the  Conservative  Party  guarantees  an  added  income. 


Ii8  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

In  other  cases,  merely  to  give  parallel  structure  to  similar 
parts  of  a  sentence  is  effective.  Note  that  this  sentence  is 
also  an  example  of  climax : 

This  man  has  been  industrious  in  his  business ;    he  has  been 
faithful  to  his  family ;  he  has  been  loyal  to  his  country ;  he  has 
.  been  true  to  his  God. 

It  will  be  helpful  to  use  all  these  forms  in  practice  work. 
But  do  not  try  them  in  public  until  they  become  your  own.  In 
your  listening  and  reading  notice  the  variations  in  structure, 
and  study  to  see  in  what  ways  they  make  the  style  attractive. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Prepare  yourself  to  give  two  short  talks,  one  made  up  chiefly 
of  short  sentences,  and  the  other  of  long  ones.  Select  your  subjects 
carefully,  and  practice  faithfully.  Do  not  strain  after  effect,  but  let 
the  style  be  decided  by  the  necessities  of  the  subject.  Give  the 
talks  in  class. 

2.  Practice  composing  periodic  sentences,  but  do  not  write  them 
out ;  give  them  orally  without  notes.  Try  to  get  in  mind  the  peri- 
odic idea,  which  is  to  hold  the  thought  uncompleted  till  the  end  of 
the  sentence.  Then  prepare  a  short  talk  which  consists  of  several 
periodic  sentences.  The  preparation  should  be  made  by  going  over 
the  talk  orally,  using  only  an  outline.  Practice  until  the  talk  goes 
smoothly.    Give  it  in  class. 

3.  Select  a  subject  which  deals  with  contrast,  such,  for  example, 
as  the  difference  between  two  schools,  colleges,  persons,  cities, 
parks,  or  countries.  Make  an  outline  of  topics,  and  practice  with 
it.  Then  give  the  speech  in  class,  using  some  balanced  sentences, 
but  avoiding  the  monotony  of  a  long  series  of  such  sentences. 

Concrete  Examples  and  Illustrations.  Examples  and  illus- 
trations serve  to  connect  abstract  or  theoretical  ideas  with 
matters   of   common   experience.    Suppose   we    are   trying 


EXAMPLES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS  1 19 

to  convince  a  baseball  captain  that  his  team  needs  more 
practice.  We  point  out  case  after  case  of  fumbles,  wild 
pitches,  awkwardness,  slowness,  and  errors  of  judgment. 
Or  again,  suppose  a  statesman  is  explaining  the  direct 
primary  law.  Somewhere  in  his  address  he  will  take 
an  actual  case ;  he  will  show  in  detail  just  what  a  certain 
man  would  have  to  do  in  order  to  become  a  candidate 
for  governor. 

Both  explanation  and  argument  are  chiefly  concerned 
with  ideas,  whereas  narration  and  description  deal  largely 
with  actual  evejits,  objects,  and  facts.  And  when  explana- 
tion and  argument  have  to  do  with  abstractions,  there  is 
special  need  of  examples.  The  mind  grasps  concrete 
thoughts  about  places,  persons,  sizes,  numbers,  times,  move- 
ments, and  happenings  much  more  easily  than  it  does 
abstractions. 

To  establish  the  fact  that  it  pays  to  buy  good  material, 
we  argue  not  only  from  a  theoretical  standpoint  but  from 
a  practical  one  as  well.  We  tell  what  would  happen  to  a 
dress  put  together  with  cheap  thread  ;  or  we  cite  an  actual 
case,  such  as  one  man's  experiment  with  lumber  of  poor 
grade  and  another  man's  success  with  a  better  grade. 

Sometimes  the  example  is  so  well  chosen  and  clearly 
put  that  the  abstract  truth  does  not  need  to  be  formulated 
in  words :  the  idea  intended  to  be  conveyed  is  at  once 
apparent.  For  example,  suppose  the  speaker  is  relating 
some  of  the  problems  of  a  housewife.  If  he  says,  "  Even 
when  a  person  must  pay  sixty  cents  a  dozen  for  eggs, 
almost  all  those  on  sale  arc  more  than  three  months  old," 
he  will  not  need  to  state  the  more  general  truth  that  the 
reason  eggs  are  high  is  that  fresh  ones  are  scarce.  Similarly, 


120  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

if  a  person  is  giving  a  talk  on  tliouglitfulness  and  considera- 
tion for  others,  and  wislies  to  bring  out  the  idea  that  most 
boys  are  apt  to  be  kind  when  they  think  about  it,  he  need 
only  say,  "  When  John  is  not  absorbed  in  his  paper  or 
book  he  can  be  depended  on  to  give  his  seat  in  the  car 
to  a  woman." 

Figures  of  Speech.  We  use  figures  of  speech  when  we 
employ  striking  or  imaginative  comparisons,  or  unusual 
constructions,  or,  in  general,  whenever  we  depart  in  a  radi- 
cal manner  from  ordinary  matter-of-fact  methods  of  talking. 
Thus  we  use  figurative  language  in  such  sentences  as  the 
following : 

This  ship  is  plowing  across  the  ocean. 
That  clock  is  a  faithful  friend. 
His  face  was  a  puzzle. 

The  room  was  so  full  of  old  paper  that  it  looked  like  a  huge 
wastebasket. 

The  shot  fired  at  Sarajevo  was  heard  throughout  the  world. 

If  we  are  explaining  that  the  man  who  starts  an  orange 
grove  must  have  money  enough  to  keep  up  the  place  until 
the  trees  begin  to  bear,  we  may  illustrate  this  by  means  of 
some  such  comparison  as,  '"  The  person  who  crosses  the 
desert  must  take  plenty  of  water,"  Or  again,  we  may  show 
the  need  for  keeping  the  mind  alert,  fresh,  and  clear  by 
instancing  the  value  of  proper  adjustment,  lubrication,  and 
cleanliness  in  the  case  of  a  delicate  piece  of  machinery. 

Many  of  our  proverbs  are  concrete  statements  of  abstract 
truths,  and  most  of  them  are  used  as  striking  comparisons 
to  explain  or  prove  a  general  proposition.  We  have  grown 
so  accustomed  to  these  common  figures  of  speech,  however, 
that  they  have  lost  most  of  their  original  vividness.    When 


FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE  121 

the  proverb,  "  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss,"  was  first 
formulated  to  illustrate  the  truth  that  a  roving,  aimless  man 
cannot  acquire  friends  or  worldly  goods,  it  was  undoubtedly 
very  effective  ;  but  it  has  now  become  so  trite  that  we  never 
think  of  the  actual  stone,  any  more  than  we  think  of  hay 
when  "  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines  "  is  spoken.  So  if 
we  wish  to  make  effective  the  rolling-stone  thought  we  may 
perhaps  succeed  better  by  the  use  of  a  concrete  instance : 
"  The  salesman  who  changes  his  position  every  month  can 
hardly  acquire  the  good  will  of  any  of  his  employers."  Or 
we  may  use  an  analogy  :  "  The  ship  which  merely  drifts 
•with  the  tide  and  wind  will  never  reach  any  port." 

Other  proverbs  furnish  good  examples  of  the  contrast 
between  the  abstract  and  the  concrete.  "  The  unexpected 
always  happens  "  is  so  broad  a  statement  of  the  abstract 
thought  that  it  covers  hundreds  of  instances.  The  effective- 
ness of  the  larger  truth  involved  might  be  made  more  appar- 
ent by  selecting  one  of  the  concrete  instances  for  statement ; 
for  example,  "  When  you  expect  a  laugh  you  may  meet 
with  a  frown." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  proverb,  '"  One  swallow  does  not 
make  a  summer,"  is  a  concrete  instance  of  a  general  truth. 
If  we  seek  for  the  abstract  statement  which  includes  this 
instance,  we  might  find  it  in  the  following  expression : 
"A  sweeping  conclusion  should  not  be  drawn  from  but 
one  fact." 

The  best  public  speakers  make  liberal  use  of  figures  of 
speech,  tor  they  know  that  these  add  vividness  and  strength 
to  their  thoughts.  They  try  to  develop  a  keen  imagination, 
so  that  pictures,  comparisons,  and  analogies  will  occur  to 
them  at  the  right  moments.    The  ability  to  dream  dreams 


122  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

is  a  prime  necessity  to  one  who  would  make  bright,  inter- 
esting speeches.  And  the  dreams  must  be  more  than  ordi- 
nary day  dreams.  Can  you  imagine  yourself  walking  down 
a  street  of  Petrograd  ?  Can  you  experience  the  sensations 
of  riding  across  the  Atlantic  in  an  airship  ?  Can  you  put 
yourself  at  Gettysburg  and  hear  President  Lincoln  deliver 
his  address  ?  Can  you  think  out  how  you  will  look  and 
what  you  will  be  doing  when  you  are  sixty  years  old  ?  Can 
you  find  yourself  in  the  future  when  the  trusts  may  be 
owned  by  the  government,  and  think  what  the  conditions 
will  be  ?  Can  you  imagine  yourself  speaking  in  Congress  ? 
We  Americans  would  become  not  only  better  speakers,  but 
better  citizens,  if  we  should  occasionally  become  as  little 
children  in  the  matter  of  the  imagination,  dreaming  some- 
times of  flying  with  the  birds,  of  living  in  the  clouds,  of 
talking  with  the  animals,  and  of  doing  the  deeds  of  heroes. 

The  student  will  profit  by  referring  to  books  on  written 
composition  for  examples  of  the  uses  of  figures  of  speech, 
particularly  of  similes  and  metaphors  in  description. 

Finally,  a  person  who  wishes  to  improve  his  style  of 
speaking  by  the  use  of  imagery  must  delve  into  literature. 
A  page  of  Dickens  or  Scott  will  show  how  common  in  fic- 
tion is  the  use  of  figures  of  speech.  Poetry  is  packed  with 
comparisons,  witness  ""  Snowbound  "  or  "  Hiawatha."  The 
Bible  is  rich  in  proverbs,  parables,  metaphors,  and  other 
figures  of  speech. 

EXERCISES 

1 .  Bring  to  class  at  least  five  examples  of  each  of  these  genera} 
statements : 

1.  This  school  has  good  school  spirit. 

2.  The  athletic  activities  of  the  school  might  be  improved. 


USING  EXAMPLES  AND  FIGURES  123 

3.  The  school  building  is  in  need  of  repairs. 

4.  There  will  be  many  things  for  future  citizens  of  this  city  to  attend 
to  before  it  will  be  an  ideal  place  in  which  to  live. 

6.  We  can  learn  several  things  from  foreign  countries. 

2.  Tell  an  incident  (either  an  actual  event  or  a  story  of  your 
own  construction)  to  illustrate  the  satisfaction  which  comes  from 
the  possession  or  exercise  of  one  of  the  following  good  qualities. 
Do  not  have  the  story  concerned  with  mere  material  rewards. 

1.  Education.  6.  Tact. 

2.  Quickness.  7.  Honesty. 

3.  Persistence.  -8.  Loyalty. 

4.  Ability  to  debate.  9.  Endurance. 

5.  Kindness.  10.  Good  reputation. 

3.  Bring  to  class  instances  of  five  of  the  general  statements 
below-.  Let  the  example  in  each  case  be  of  such  a  nature  that  the 
general  statement  need  not  be  given.  Let  the  class  decide  which 
concrete  instance  best  brings  out  the  meaning. 

1.  When  the  agricultural  interests  prosper  everyone  is  benefited. 

2.  When  the  times  are  hard,  crime  increases. 

3.  If  the  nations  would  only  put  more  friendliness  into  their  rela- 

tions, the  cause  of  universal  peace  would  be  aided. 

4.  Liars  use  figures  (statistics). 

5.  One  needs  to  be  ready  when  opportunity  knocks. 

6.  There  is  a  world  of  wealth  in  unexpected  places. 

7.  Small  things  decide  great  issues. 

8.  There  are  times  when  a  person  must  use  his  authority. 

9.  If  everybody  should  do  as  he  pleases  anarchy  would  result. 
10.  "  Early  to  bed,  and  early  to  rise, 

Makes  a  man  healthy,  wealthy,  and  wise." 

4.  Frame  analogies  to  illustrate  the  truth  of  five  of  these 
statements : 

1.  Every  school  needs  a  head. 

2.  Horses  should  be  treated  kindly. 

3.  Boys  will  be  boys. 


124  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSmON 

4.  A  person  should  not  have  to  work  so  hard  or  so  long  that  he 

loses  his  efficiency. 

5.  No  one  can  enjoy  a  home  that  is  not  kept  clean. 

6.  Manufacturing  concerns  cannot  expect  to  succeed  with  out-of 

date  machinery. 

7.  Women  should  not  be  made  slaves  to  the  welfare  of  their  chil- 

dren ;  they  should  have  their  share  in  life's  activities. 

8.  Those  who  use  the  roads  should  pay  for  them. 

9.  Young  people  need  frequent  advice  and  admonition. 
10.  Voters  should  find  out  more  about  their  candidates. 

5.  Below  is  a  list  of  proverbs  and  familiar  expressions,  which 
have  been  used  so  frequently  that  much  of  their  original  vividness 
is  gone.  Select  ten  of  them  for  special  study.  Decide  what  is  the 
abstract  truth  which  each  is  supposed  to  illustrate,  and  think  out 
other  instances  of  this  general  truth.  Then  select  for  each  of  the 
ten  statements  a  concrete  instance  so  typical  that  it  suggests  the 
general  truth,  and  so  vivid  that  it  is  more  effective,  if  possible, 
than  the  original  proverb  itself. 

This  exercise  may  be  turned  into  a  competition  to  find  the 
best  statements. 

1.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

2.  A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine. 

3.  Spare  the  rod  and  spoil  the  child. 

4.  Horse  sense. 

5.  Letting  the  cat  out  of  the  bag. 

6.  A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush. 

7.  Killing  two  birds  with  one  stone. 

8.  The  early  bird  catches  the  worm. 

9.  A  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned. 

10.  Feathering  one's  nest. 

11.  Sour  grapes. 

12.  In  a  nutshell. 

13.  Look  before  you  leap. 

14.  An  ax  to  grind. 

15.  Burning  his  bridges  behind  him. 

16.  Every  cloud  has  a  silver  lining. 


USING  EXAMPLES  AND  FIGURES  125 

17.  The  worm  will  turn. 

18.  What  is  sauce  for  the  goose  is  sauce  for  the  gander. 

19.  Covering  one's  tracks. 

20.  The  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in  the  eating. 

6.  The  following  proverbs  are  abstract  in  greater  or  less  degree. 
Each  of  them  is  a  broad  statement  which  includes  many  instances. 
Select  ten  of  these  for  study,  and  consider  carefully  several  of  the 
instances  of  the  truth  of  each.  Then  find  for  each  the  best  pos- 
sible illustration.  Try  to  find  examples  so  good,  and  to  make  the 
statements  so  vivid,  that  your  expressions  are  as  effective  as  the 
original  proverbs. 

1.  Seeing  is  believing. 

2.  Circumstances  alter  cases. 

3.  Discretion  is  the  better  part  of  valor. 

4.  Easy  come,  easy  go. 

5.  All  things  come  to  him  who  waits. 

6.  A  place  for  everything,  and  everything  in  its  place. 

7.  Coming  events  cast  their  shadows  before. 

8.  A  word  to  the  wise  is  sufficient. 

9.  Make  haste  slowly. 

10.  \'ariety  is  the  spice  of  life. 

11.  There  is  nothing  new  under  the  sun. 

12.  Never  put  off  till  to-morrow  what  you  can  do  to-day. 

13.  Least  said,  soonest  mended. 

14.  All  is  fair  in  love  and  war. 

15.  Figures  never  lie. 

16.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. 

17.  One  thing  at  a  time. 

18.  What  is  worth  doing  is  worth  doing  well. 

19.  Opportunity  knocks  but  once. 

20.  Honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

7.  The  following  proverbs  are  concrete  in  greater  or  less  de- 
gree. Select  ten  of  them  for  study.  Decide  for  each  what  general 
statement  will  best  express  the  abstract  thought  involved.  Make 
the  statements  as  broad  as  possible. 


126  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

1.  Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together. 

2.  What  is  fun  for  the  boys  is  death  for  the  frogs. 

3.  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard ;  consider  her  ways  and  be  wise, 

4.  As  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree  is  inclined. 

5.  The  longest  way  'round  is  the  shortest  way  home. 

6.  A  chain  is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link. 

7.  The  mill  will  never  grind  with  the  water  that  has  passed. 

8.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

9.  Penny  wise  and  pound  foolish. 

10.  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

11.  You  cannot  get  blood  out  of  a  turnip. 

12.  Showing  the  white  feather. 

13.  Locking  the  stable  door  after  the  horse  is  stolen. 

14.  Never  cross  a  bridge  before  you  reach  it. 

15.  Lightning  never  strikes  twice  in  the  same  place. 

16.  It  is  a  long  lane  that  has  no  turning. 

17.  It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blows  nobody  any  good. 

18.  Too  many  cooks  spoil  the  broth. 

19.  He  reckoned  without  his  host. 

20.  Barking  dogs  do  not  always  bite. 

Arrangement  of  Parts  —  Outlines.  Many  directions  for 
the  preparation  of  an  outline  have  already  been  given,  so 
that  we  shall  here  consider  the  further  matters  which  apply 
to  all  outlines,  especially  the  need  of  unity  and  coherence. 
As  the  student  studies  his  subject  in  preparation  for  a  talk 
he  may  write  out  every  topic  on  which  he  intends  to  touch, 
and  perhaps  the  best  plan  will  be  to  use  a  separate  card  or 
slip  of  paper  for  each  topic.  This  method  is  useful  in  the 
case  of  all  speeches,  long  or  short ;  it  may  be  used  when 
one  is  familiar  with  the  subject  and  needs  only  main  topics, 
or  when  one  must  use  full  and  extensive  notes,  or  even 
when  the  whole  material  of  the  speech  is  on  slips  or  cards. 

Classifying  the  Topics.  With  all  the  topics  recorded,  the 
student  is  ready  to  classify  them.    It  will  at  once  be  noticed 


MAKING  OUTLINES  127 

that  some  of  the  topics  belong  with  certain  others,  and  that 
the  speech  has  several  main  divisions.  Further  inspection 
will  make  these  groupings  stand  out  more  clearly.  If  the 
speech  is  to  be  the  story  of  a  vacation  experience,  some 
slips  will  be  concerned  with  the  preparatory  plans  for  the 
vacation,  others  with  the  return  home,  etc.  If  a  city  is  to 
be  described,  some  topics  will  be  concerned  with  the  busi- 
ness streets,  others  with  the  recreation  centers.  If  a  law 
raising  the  maximum  height  for  buildings  is  to  be  advo- 
cated, some  slips  may  bear  topics  dealing  with  the  evils 
of  the  present  restrictions,  some  may  quote  laws  of  other 
cities,  and  others  may  note  the  benefits  to  come  from  the 
change  proposed.  In  most  speeches  there  will  be  from 
three  to  six  of  these  groups,  corresponding  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  talk. 

Stating  the  Main  Points.  Each  of  the  main  points  may 
be  expressed  in  brief  statements.  A  word  or  two  will  be 
satisfactory  for  labeling  the  main  divisions  of  most  kinds  of 
talks,  but  there  is  distinct  gain  in  definiteness  and  clearness 
of  thought  if  each  main  point  is  expressed  in  a  complete 
sentence.  Note  the  difference  between  topic  and  sentence 
in  the  following  : 

1.  The  party.  Our  party  consisted  of  twenty-five  members  of 
the  senior  class. 

2.  The  view.    We  were  able  to  see  the  lights  of  twenty  cities. 

3.  The  terms.    The  terms  are  very  reasonable  and  liberal. 

4.  The  benefits.  This  law  will  make  possible  several  improve- 
ments. 

Arranging  the  Order  of  Points.  Having  formulated  the 
three  main  topics,  the  next  task  is  to  arrange  these  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  to  be  delivered.    In  most  cases  this 


128  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

order  is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  the 
topics  will  fall  into  their  proper  order  as  the  study  proceeds. 
Thus  in  narration  the  time  sequence  of  events  is  usually 
followed.  In  description  the  guide  to  follow  is  the  relative 
position  in  space  of  the  various  parts  of  the  object  being 
described.  In  explanation  the  topics  may  follow  the  time 
order  of  the  process,  or  the  order  of  the  operation  of  cause 
and  effect,  or  that  of  the  appearance  of  various  problems 
and  their  solutions.  In  argument  the  way  must  sometimes 
be  prepared  for  new  proposals,  and  sometimes  the  order  of 
parts  depends  upon  the  occasion  and  the  audience.  This 
we  shall  discuss  in  Chapter  XIII. 

Coherence  in  the  Outline.  The  best  way  of  determining 
whether  topics  are  arranged  in  a  proper  order  is  to  look 
through  the  points  to  see  if  they  can  be  easily  developed, 
as  they  stand,  into  a  connected  speech.  This  connection 
between  topics  we  call  coherence,  or  transition  from  one 
topic  to  the  next.  If  each  thought  prepares  the  way  for 
the  succeeding  one,  then  the  outline  is  well  arranged.  Thus 
if  a  person  were  advocating  that  a  city  purchase  a  triple 
combination  piece  of  motor-driven  fire  apparatus,  he  must 
first  show  that  the  present  apparatus  is  inadequate.  Having 
convinced  his  hearers  that  some  change  is  necessary,  he 
may  next  state  and  discuss  the  possible  solutions,  showing 
that  none  of  them  is  so  satisfactory  as  the  one  under 
consideration.  He  may  then  come  back  to  and  discuss  his 
proposal.  He  first  asks,  Is  it  practicable  .■'  And  under  this 
topic  he  considers  the  method  of  appropriating  the  money 
to  pay  for  the  apparatus,  and  the  superiority  of  such  parts 
as  hose  carrier,  chemical  engine,  and  water  pump.  Having 
thus  shown  how  it  may  be  bought  and  how  it  works,  he 


MAKING  OUTLINES  129 

may  cite  instances  of  the  successful  operation  of  these 
engines  in  other  cities.  He  may  close  by  summarizing  the 
benefits  which  the  city  will  derive  from  the  possession  of 
this  .apparatus.  In  such  a  talk  each  topic  seems  to  grow 
out  of  the  one  before  it,  and  to  lead  naturally  to  the  next. 

Arranging  the  Subtopics.  Now  to  go  back  to  the  slips. 
We  have  arranged  them  in  several  piles,  each  pile  repre- 
senting one  main  division  of  the  talk,  and  we  have  just 
seen  how  to  determine  the  order  of  these  divisions.  We 
have  now  to  arrange  the  slips  or  topics  within  each  division. 
This  we  do  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  we  arranged  the 
main  parts.  Taking  each  group  separately,  we  study  all  the 
cards  to  find  the  divisions  into  which  they  fall,  arranging 
them  in  a  natural,  logical  order.  The  same  process  may  be 
repeated  again  if  necessary,  making  two  sets  of  subtopics. 
In  the  end  the  complete  speech  will  be  outlined  consecu- 
tively, with  subtopics  properly  indented  on  the  paper.  The 
student  is  now  ready  for  oral  practice,  according  to  the 
plan  suggested  in  Chapter  IV. 

Coherence  of  Details.  The  principle  of  coherence  must 
be  applied  in  passing  from  sentence  to  sentence,  and  from 
paragraph  to  paragraph,  and  from  subdivision  to  subdivision, 
as  well  as  from  one  main  topic  to  the  next.  There  must 
be  no  sudden  breaks  of  thought.  All  the  way  through  the 
speech  there  must  be  fitting  use  of  the  means  of  connec- 
tion :  repetition  of  significant  words,  use  of  pronouns  or 
other  words  referring  to  terms  already  named,  repetition  of 
the  thought  in  different  words,  connection  by  a  thought 
which  is  related  to  an  idea  which  has  gone  before,  and 
connection  by  adverbial  expressions  —  words  used  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  links.     On  page  64  is  a  list  of  words 


I30  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

useful  in  making  connections.  Here  are  some  others  :  '  in 
spite  of  this,'  '  as  a  result,'  "  as  might  be  expected,'  '  indeed,' 
'in  fact,'  'of  course,'  'now,'  'but,'  'on  the  contrary.' 

Unity.  The  principle  of  unity  dictates  that  the  thoughts 
expressed  under  each  head  shall  all  relate  to  that  head, 
that  there  shall  be  no  outside  ideas  introduced.  Each  sen- 
tence, each  paragraph,  each  subdivision,  each  main  division, 
and  each  whole  speech  must  possess  unity,  that  is,  each 
must  deal  with  but  one  thought.  The  greatest  danger  is 
the  temptation  to  wander  from  the  subject  with  an  idea 
that  seems  interesting  and  worth  while.  The  speaker  must 
not  yield  to  this  temptation.  Careful  outlining  and  rigid 
following  of  the  outline  will  prevent  this. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Choose  as  your  subject  for  a  possible  speech  a  description 
of  your  school  or  your  city.  Write  on  the  blackboard  the  main 
topics  for  the  description,  in  the  order  you  think  best.  Compare 
your  topics  and  your  order  with  those  of  other  students,  and  decide 
which  is  best.  The  class  may  recite  in  two  sections,  one  for  the 
school  outline,  and  one  for  the  city  outline. 

2.  Prepare  a  detailed  outline  for  a  speech  on  an  interesting 
and  complex  subject.  Avoid  narration.  Take  successively  the 
following  steps : 

1.  Write  down,  on  slips  of  paper  of  uniform  size,  the  topics  and 
thoughts  which  occur  to  you,  using  one  slip  for  each  item. 

2.  Study  the  subject  thoroughly,  and  add  to  the  collection  of  slips. 

3.  When  enough  material  is  collected,  spread  the  slips  on  a  large 
table  or  desk.  Then  study  them  to  determine  the  main  groups.  When 
this  has  been  done,  gather  the  slips  of  each  group  into  a  pile.  Next 
write  on  a  slip  for  each  pile  the  sentence  which  expresses  the  general 
thought  of  the  slips  in  that  pile. 


INTRODUCTIONS  AND  CONCLUSIONS         131 

4.  Take  these  topic  sentences  as  the  main  divisions  of  the  speech 
and  arrange  them  in  correct  order. 

5.  In  a  similar  way  sort  the  slips  in  each  pile. 

6.  See  that  all  the  slips  are  in  proper  order. 

7.  Copy  the  outline  on  paper,  supplying  main  headings,  if  needed, 
and  making  the  appropriate  indentations. 

8.  Copy  the  outline  on  cards. 

3.  Practice  the  speech  outlined  above.  Follow  the  outline 
rigidly.  Whenever  a  new  topic  appears  make  the  connecting 
links  as  strong  as  possible.  Tr}'  to  make  good  connections, 
also,  between  the  smaller  units  of-  the  speech.  Deliver  the 
speech  in  class. 

Introductions.  We  have  already  indicated  many  of  the 
principles  to  be  observed  in  the  making  of  introductions 
and  conclusions.  Here  we  shall  briefly  restate  them  and 
call  attention  to  a  few  other  considerations. 

The  introduction  gives  an  opportunity  to  the  speaker  to 
make  his  subject  attractive  to  the  audience.  He  may  em- 
phasize the  value  and  importance  of  the  topic,  and  wherein 
it  will  be  valuable  to  the  audience  to  hear  it  discussed. 
He  may  try  to  connect  a  new  or  strange  subject  with  facts 
already  in  the  minds  of  the  hearers.  The  subject  of  the 
talk  must  be  announced  unless  it  has  already  been  intro- 
duced, and  it  will  be  helpful  if  the  speaker  will  give  a 
broad,  general  idea  of  the  scope  of  the  talk.  Let  us  illus- 
trate by  means  of  a  few  introductory  sentences  from  a 
description  of  the  University  of  California : 

Every  citizen  of  California  should  be  informed  about  his  state 
university.  It  is  an  institution  which  has  attained  a  world-wide 
reputation.  You,  as  citizens  of  the  state,  support  it  with  your 
money,  and  it  exists  to  serve  you  and  your  children.  It  has  de- 
partments which  stand  ready  to  advise  any  resident  of  the  state 


132  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

about  his  affairs,  whether  he  be  laborer,  banker,  merchant,  miner, 
or  farmer.  The  value  of  the  common  schools  and  of  the  high 
schools  to  the  children  is  well  appreciated.  The  university  is  but 
a  continuation  of  the  free  educational  system  of  the  state :  the 
state  offers  its  children  a  training  which  extends  from  the  kinder- 
garten through  the  university.  My  object  in  this  talk  is  to  make 
you  acquainted  with  the  university  at  Berkeley.  I  shall  describe 
its  location,  its  grounds,  and  its  buildings. 

Then  would  follow  the  description  itself:  "The  city  of 
Berkeley,  the  home  of  the  University  of  California,  is 
situated,"  etc. 

Introductions  must  be  brief  without  being  abrupt.  Unless 
the  speaker  wishes  to  shock  or  surprise  his  hearers  he  must 
not  begin  too  suddenly.  The  listeners  must  have  time  to 
get  their  attention  adjusted  to  the  subject  and  to  the  in- 
dividual style  of  the  speaker.  When  you  are  sure  of  two 
things,  —  that  your  hearers  know  definitely  what  you  are 
going  to  talk  about,  and  that  they  are  interested,  —  then 
you  may  begin  with  the  main  part  of  the  speech. 

Conclusions.  For  the  concluding  sentence  or  sentences 
a  summary  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  an  argument,  and 
is  very  effective  in  most  other  kinds  of  speeches.  The 
summary  is  valuable  because  it  quickly  reviews  the  entire 
subject :  it  carries  the  listener  back  and  illumines  the  whole 
picture  at  the  same  time.  For  example  : 

The  university  furnishes  an  ideal  place  for  intellectual  endeavor. 
Built  at  the  foot  of  a  row  of  hills,  on  the  slope  facing  the  Golden 
Gate,  with  grounds  of  rare  variety  and  beauty,  and  with  a  group 
of  buildings  arranged  according  to  an  impressive  and  convenient 
plan,  it  is  faithfully  preparing  for  useful  citizenship  thousands  of 
the  sons  and  daughters  of  the  state. 


INTRODUCTIONS  AND  CONCLUSIONS  133 

The  conclusion  may  thus  repeat  or  suggest  an  idea 
which  was  mentioned  in  the  introduction,  and  so  help  to 
make  the  speech  a  unified  whole. 

Whether  or  not  a  summaiy  is  used,  and  whether  or  not 
an  introductory  thought  is  suggested  by  the  closing  words, 
the  last  words  spoken  must  deal  with  a  broad,  compre- 
hensive idea  rather  than  with  a  detail  of  the  subject.  This 
is  a  prime  necessity  if  the  speech  is  to  be  ended  well,  with 
the  hearers  satisfied.  One  of  the  worst  faults  of  beginners 
is  the  mistake  of  thinking  that  a  speech  is  finished  when 
the  last  detail  is  given.  Notice  these  closing  sentences  of 
four  different  speeches  : 

1.  We  reached  home  at  nine  o'clock. 

2.  The  workbenches  are  always  kept  clean. 

3.  This  house  plan  provides  for  wide  eaves. 

4.  The  machine  is  easily  stopped  by  means  of  this  lever. 

JS'o  matter  how  good  the  talk  is,  if  it  ends  with  such  a 
sentence,  it  is  like  a  picture  without  a  frame.  The  subject 
itself  may  be  complete  —  that  is  not  the  point.  The  last 
sentence  is  the  one  most  prominent  in  the  minds  of  the 
hearers,  and  therefore  they  carry  away  the  memory  of  an  un- 
important detail  rather  than  a  large  impression  of  the  whole 
subject.  The  frame  is  not  a  part  of  a  picture  ;  it  encircles 
it  and  sets  it  off.  Just  so  the  conclusion  is  not  a  part  of  the 
subject  matter  of  the  speech  ;  it  includes  the  whole  subject, 
and  sets  it  forth  again  more  clearly.  Such  a  frame  is  neces- 
sary, if  only  to  hide  the  ragged  edges,  to  push  back  the 
details  into  their  proper  places.  To  the  foregoing  false 
concluding  sentences  should  be  added,  then,  some  such 
sentences  as  these,  the  numbers  corresponding : 


134  STYLE  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

1.  Everybody  was  glad  to  welcome  us,  and  to  hear  about  our 
fine  trip. 

2.  I  could  not  help  thinking  what  good  carpenters  this  school 
would  turn  out. 

3.  No  house  in  the  whole  city  could  be  more  attractive. 

4.  Ever}'  detail  is  arranged  for  convenience  and  safety. 

But  perhaps  a  frame  wider  still  would  be  best  of  all. 
If  the  student  will  now  read  consecutively  the  sentences 
numbered  alike  above,  and  add  to  them  the  corresponding 
ones  below,  he  will  see  the  value  of  a  final  summary  : 

1.  We  never  tire  of  thinking  and  talking  about  our  excursion  — 
the  preparations  for  the  journey,  the  difficulties  on  the  way,  the  camp 
on  the  mountain  top,  the  view,  the  hurried  descent,  and,  best  of  all, 
the  welcome  home.    This  trip  was  one  of  the  big  events  of  my  life. 

2.  Grant  School  has  a  beautiful  location,  fine  buildings,  and  a 
good  course  of  study,  and  is  well  equipped  to  teach  boys  trades. 
It  is  worth  a  visit. 

3.  It  provides  for  a  substantial  construction,  for  a  convenient 
interior  arrangement,  for  all  the  modem  space-saving  and  labor- 
saving  devices,  and  for  an  attractive  exterior  appearance. 

4.  You  have  seen  that  the  machine  is  easily  connected,  that  the 
expense  is  surprisingly  small,  that  the  clothes  are  thoroughly 
washed  without  any  handling,  and  that  anyone  can  learn  to 
operate  it.    Why  not  try  it  ? 

Even  for  a  speech  of  ten  sentences  think  out  beforehand 
how  to  begin  and  how  to  end.  This  forethought  will  save 
some  awkward  stumbling  at  the  start,  and  some  ungraceful 
■  and  ineffective  endings.  It  has  frequently  been  said  that 
the  most  important  words  in  an  entire  speech,  so  far  as  the 
effect  upon  the  audience  is  concerned,  are  the  concluding 
ones  ;  and  that  the  next  most  important  words  are  those 
with  which  the  speech  begins. 


INTRODUCTIONS  AND  CONCLUSIONS 


135 


EXERCISES 

1.  Choose  one  of  the  subjects  below,  make  yourself  familiar 
with  the  general  ideas,  prepare  an  introduction  to  a  speech  on  the 
subject,  and  deliver  the  introduction  in  class. 


1.  The  city  of  Honolulu. 

2.  Niagara  Falls. 

3.  Ancient  Athens. 

4.  The  sinking  of  the  Lusttani'a. 

5.  Crossing  the  Atlantic  by  air. 


6.  How  eggs  are  stored. 

7.  Coal  in  Alaska. 

8.  Washington's  success  in  war. 

9.  Would  socialism  fail  ? 
10.  Athletics  for  everybody. 


2.   Plan,  practice,  and  deliver  an  appropriate  conclusion  for  a 
speech  on  one  of  the  following  subjects : 

1.  The    United    States    Depart-        6.  How  rubber  is  produced. 

ment  of  Agriculture. 

2.  The  causes  of  the  European 

war. 

3.  The  city  of  Hongkong. 

4.  The  Roman  Colosseum. 

5.  The  discovery  of  America. 


7.  Buying  an  automobile. 

8.  How  mines  are  ventilated. 

9.  Should  all  boys  learn  a  trade.'' 
10.   How  phonographic  records 

are  made. 


CHAPTER    IX 

EXPLANATIONS:    ADDITIONAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

In  Chapter  I  we  considered  the  most  common  kinds  of 
explanation  :  those  in  whicli  we  tell  how  to  make  an  object 
or  how  to  perform  an  act  or  series  of  acts.  In  the  present 
chapter  we  shall  discuss  three  other  kinds  of  explanations  : 
first,  that  in  which  the  definition  of  something  is  given,  as 
when  we  tell  the  meaning  of  the  word  '  neutrality '  or  the 
difference  between  a  band  and  an  orchestra ;  second,  that 
in  which  the  purpose  of  something  is  given,  as  when  we  tell 
the  reason  why  the  name  of  St.  Petersburg  was  changed  ; 
and  third,  that  in  which  a  complex  process  is  made  clear, 
as  when  we  tell  how  a  law  operates  or  how  sea  currents 
affect  climate. 

Defining.  To  define  any  term  is  to  show  its  meaning  in 
words  and  ideas  already  familiar  to  our  hearers.  The  short- 
est definitions  are  mere  synonyms,  as  when  we  say  that 
'  unsightly '  means  '  ugly.'  Often  definition  by  means  of  a 
synonym  is  adequate  to  our  needs.  In  other  cases,  however, 
a  synonymous  expression  will  not  be  satisfactory.  The  defi- 
nition should  do  two  things :  it  should  tell  on  the  one  hand 
how  the  term  is  like  other  terms,  and  on  the  other  hand 
how  it  has  a  special  meaning  of  its  own.  For  example,  an 
ostrich  may  be  defined  as  a  very  large,  two-toed  bird  of 
Africa  and  Arabia ;  or  a  street-railway  franchise  as  a  privi- 
lege given  by  a  city  to  a  company,  permitting  it  to  use  the 

136 


DEFINING  137 

streets  for  huing  tracks  and  operating  cars ;  or  calcium 
carbide  as  a  lumpy,  cinderlike  substance  which  generates 
an  illuminating  gas  when  brought  in  contact  with  water. 

Interpreting.  Sometimes  we  are  required  to  explain  the 
meaning  of  a  sentence  or  whole  passage,  such  as  a  selection 
from  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  a  case  of  this 
kind  the  best  plan  is  usually  to  give  the  complete  sense  of 
the  passage  in  simpler  words.  To  do  this  it  may  be  neces- 
sary first  to  explain  briefly  the  meanings  of  certain  words 
and  expressions,  and  then  to  weav-e  these  into  a  connected 
explanation.  The  chief  task  of  the  speaker  is  to  decide 
what  ideas  in  the  passage  need  explanation,  and  to  give 
.emphasis  to  these.  For  example,  if  we  are  to  explain  the 
sentence,  "  It  would  be  puerile  to  ignore  defects  and  imper- 
fections still  existent  in  the  national  and  municipal  life  of 
the  United  States,"  the  word  'puerile'  may  be  defined  by 
using  the  synonym  '  childish,'  and  the  sentence  as  a  whole 
may  be  made  clear  by  some  such  paraphrase  as  this  :  "It 
would  be  childish  to  say  that  there  are  no  faults  in  the 
national  and  city  governments  of  the  United  States." 

Distinguishing  Differences.  Frequently  we  are  asked  to 
explain  the  difference  between  two  expressions  or  between 
two  objects.  Tw^o  synonyms  will  sometimes  make  the  differ- 
ence clear,  but  often  we  shall  need  to  give  more.  For  ex- 
ample, in  explaining  the  difference  between  an  automobile 
and  a  cycle  car  it  might  be  necessary  first  to  define  one  or 
both,  next  to  point  out  some  important  points  of  likeness, 
♦■hen  to  tell  the  differences,  and  finally  to  give  the  essential 
difference  —  that  of  size  and  weight. 

Analyzing.  Again,  ■  we  sometimes  explain  an  idea  by 
analyzing   it.    To   do   this    we   show   what   the   expression 


138  EXPLANATIONS 

includes,  as  when  we  explain  the  term  "  government '  by 
naming  the  kinds  of  governments.  Or  we  show  the  parts 
and  the  relations  between  parts,  as  when  we  explain  a  merry- 
go-round.  Or  we  expand  and  illustrate,  as  when  we  explain 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence,  '  The  beginning  of  the  history 
of  the  United  States  must  be  looked  for  in  Europe.'  This 
last  method  often  goes  beyond  mere  definition,  for  it  ex- 
plains reasons  and  processes  also.  It  is  the  method  used  by 
most  of  our  textbooks  in  explaining  the  principles  of  their 
subjects. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Define  five  of  the  terms  below.  Make  use  of  the  dictionary 
and  such  other  helps  as  you  wish.  Ask  yourself  the  following 
questions :  What  is  the  best  way  to  explain  the  meaning  of  each 
expression  .-*  Is  a  drawing  needed  ?  Is  a  complete  explanation  of  a 
process  necessary  ?  Is  any  analysis  or  illustration  needed  ?  Then 
use  what  seems  to  you  the  best  method  and  come  to  class  prepared 
to  give  interesting  explanations.    Be  brief. 

1.  By-product.  17.   Speculation. 

2.  Fagade.  18.   Palmetto. 

3.  Hydroplane.  19.   Siphon. 

4.  Felling  (the  seams  of  a  dress).  20.   Pilaster. 

5.  Hydrographic  charts.  21.   Prize  court. 

6.  Before  the  mast.  22.   Glacier. 

7.  Ultimatum.  23.   Pigment. 

8.  Firebreak.  24.  Crescendo. 

9.  Nihilism.  25.   Denouement. 
10.  Overproduction.  26.  Escapement. 

II.  Inundate.  27.   Ballot. 

12.  Proclivity.  28.  Middleman. 

13.  Ovation.  29.  Armistice. 

14.  Inventory.  30.  Caucus. 

15.  Legerdemain.  31.  Unconditional. 

16.  Misappropriate.  32.  Unifiable. 


DEFINING  139 

33.  Longshoreman.  37.  Wholesale. 

34.  Irreconcilable.  38.  Sedentary. 

35.  Legendary.  39.  Utilitarian. 

36.  Profuse.  40.  Involuntary. 

2.  Explain  the  meaning  of  three  of  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Conservation  of  natural  resources  will  be  the  subject  under 
discussion. 

2.  The  forecasts  given  in  the  meteorological  bulletins  arc  of  tre- 
mendous service  to  the  farmers. 

3.  Reduction  works  arc  not  always  near  the  mines. 

4.  The  nonsuccess  of  our  proposals  compelled  us  to  extend  our 
military  precautions. 

5.  I  have  the  honor  of  applying  for  your  kind  intervention  in  order 
that  the  boats  in  question  may  be  allowed  to  leave  for  Germany. 

6.  The  industrial  and  commercial  progress  of  the  South  in  the  last 
generation  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  in  our  history. 

7.  We  are  alive  to-day  to  the  dangers  of  unrestricted  immigration. 

8.  The  constant  criticism  directed  against  us  by  foreign  nations 
is  that  America  is  the  land  of  dollars,  and  that  we  care  little  for  the 
encouragement  of  letters,  art,  science,  and  scholarship. 

9.  The  motor  car  has  taken  its  place  in  the  complex  scheme  of  life, 
widening  the  scope  of  that  scheme  and  at  the  same  time  becoming 
necessary  to  its  successful  working. 

10.  Nothing  contained  in  this  convention  shall  be  construed  as 
requiring  the  United  States  of  America  to  depart  from  its  traditional 
policy  of  not  intruding  upon,  interfering  with,  or  entangling  itself  in, 
the  political  questions  or  policy  or  international  administration  of  any 
foreign  State. 

Note.  Other  passages  for  explanation  may  be  selected  from  school 
textbooks. 

3.  Explain  the  difference  between  the  two  terms  in  three  of 
the  following  pairs : 

1.  Socialism,  anarchy.  5.  Book,  pamphlet. 

2.  Brain,  mind.  6.  Town,  village. 

3.  Bolt,  lag  screw.  7.   Flag,  pennant. 

4.  Chair,  stool.  8.   Hatchet,  ax. 


I40 


EXPLANATIONS 


9.  Cornet,  trumpet. 

10.  Violin,  viola. 

11.  Civilized,  barbarous.. 

12.  Dignified,  serious. 

13.  Barbarous,  savage. 

14.  Defective,  abnormal. 


15.  Administrative,  executive. 

16.  Politician,  statesman. 

17.  Real  property,  personal  property. 

18.  Butter,  oleomargarine. 

19.  Fear,  cowardice. 

20.  Courage,  daring. 


4.  Explain  the  meaning  of  three  of  the  terms  below  by  telling 
the  kinds  of  things  included  by  each,  or  the  parts  and  their  rela- 
tions ;  that  is,  explain  by  analyzing. 

13.  Play. 

14.  Cooperation. 

15.  Lighthouse. 

16.  Skill  is  necessary  in  the  trades. 

17.  War  is  harder  on  women  than 
on  men. 

18.  The  negro  has  made  great  prog- 
ress. 

19.  Modern   improvements   lighten 
the  work  of  housekeeping. 

20.  Necessity  is  the  mother  of  in- 
vention. 


1.  Bank. 

2.  Kitchen. 

3.  Public-service  corporation. 

4.  Patriotism. 

5.  Fuel. 

6.  The  professions. 

7.  Trade. 

8.  Dressmaking. 

9.  Vocation. 

10.  Vegetarianism. 

11.  Work. 

12.  Religion. 


Explaining  Reasons  and  Purposes.  When  we  come  to 
deal  with  the  reasons  and  purposes  of  things  we  are  forced 
to  study  causes  and  their  effects.  Thus,  if  we  ask  why 
the  name  of  St.  Petersburg  was  changed,  we  must  recognize 
that  the  change  of  name  was  the  effect  of  a  cause,  and 
must  proceed  to  find  that  cause  or  group  of  causes.  Often 
causes  are  universal  and  sweeping  laws.  For  example,  the 
outbreak  of  a  war  leads  to  hatred  between  the  opposing 
nations.  We  know  that  this  is  an  almost  universal  law  of 
human  nature,  and  have  now  only  to  show  that  this  cause 
was  operating  in  the  case  of  the  change  in  the  name  of 
St.  Petersburg  to  understand  the  reason   for   that   change. 


GIVING  REASONS  141 

Thus  our  explanation  consists  of  two  parts  :  ( i )  an  expo- 
sition of  the  cause ;  and  {2)  the  concrete  appHcation  of 
this  cause  to  the  case  to  be  explained. 

Similarly,  suppose  that  we  are  asked  to  explain  the 
importance  of  the  occupation  of  the  teacher.  We  should 
discuss  the  necessity  of  giving  children  a  careful  prepara- 
tion for  life,  and  then  should  show  that  the  teacher  helps 
to  provide  these  opportunities. 

In  making  an  apology,  or  explaining  why  we  did  a 
certain  thing,  we  are  explaining  purposes  and  causes.  All 
explanations  of  behavior  are  of  this  kind. 

In  dealing  with  causes,  the  explanation  closely  approaches 

argument.     This  requires  a  high  order  of  thinking,  but  it 

gives  good  returns. 

EXERCISE 

Study  the  causes  involved  in  two  of  the  cases  given  below. 
Then  plan  a  brief  talk  to  explain  each.  Practice  the  talks  and 
give  them  in  class. 

1.  Why  is  it  important  for  every  high-school  pupil  to  know  how  to 
t}'pewrite  at  least  as  fast  as  he  can  write.'* 

2.  Why  is  aluminum  used  for  kitchen  utensils? 

3.  Why  is  baseball  so  popular? 

4.  Why  do  not  -Americans  like  cricket  more  than  they  do  ? 

5.  W^hy  do  not  the  English  object  to  the  idea  of  a  monarchy  ? 

6.  Why  is  gingham  better  than  calico  for  work  aprons? 

7.  Why  is  it  better  to  have  a  definite  time  each  day  for  study  than 
to  study  only  when  in  the  mood  for  it? 

8.  Why  was a  good  president  ? 

9.  Why  is best  for  shortening? 

10.  Why  did  Germany  declare  war  before  the  other  nations  ? 

11.  Why  is  the  occupation  of  the  street  cleaner  an  important  one? 

12.  Why  arc  dictophones  useful? 

13.  Why  did  Brutus  decide  to  help  in  the  conspiracy  against  Caesar? 

14.  Why  did  Rebecca  help  Ivanhoe? 


142  EXPLANATIONS 

15.  Why  do  we  have  cement  sidewalks  ? 

16.  Why  do  we  allow  street  cars  to  become  overcrowded? 

17.  What  are  the  conveniences  of  having  electricity  in  the  house? 

18.  Why  are  laws  necessary.? 

19.  Why  should  every  pupil  take  manual  training  ? 

20.  Why  is  it  important  to  study  occupations  ? 

Explaining  Processes  and  Operations.  We  now  come  to 
the  explanations  which  make  clear  processes  and  operations, 
such  as  the  laws  -of  nature,  mechanics,  politics,  business,  and 
society.  The  same  general  principles  are  involved  in  the 
explanation  of  all  processes,  and  these  principles  we  have 
already  considered  in  an  elementary  way  in  Chapter  I. 
We  shall  here  briefly  review  these  principles,  and  consider 
some  of  the  more  complicated  explanations. 

Collecting  the  Material.  As  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I, 
all  material  collected  should  be  carefully  tested,  and  should 
not  be  accepted  as  true  upon  insufficient  evidence.  Thus, 
if  we  are  to  explain  why  Germany  invaded  Belgium,  we 
should  not  accept  any  statement  as  final  until  we  have 
examined  all  accessible  material  on  the  subject.  So,  in 
explaining  a  process  such  as  that  involved  in  making  dyes, 
we  should  be  likely  to  fall  into  error  if  we  based  our  talk 
on  information  contained  in  one  article  of  a  popular  maga- 
zine. The  means  of  testing  the  accuracy  of  any  information 
are  as  follows  :  ( i )  Extend  the  study  to  include  information 
from  several  different  sources.  (2)  Compare  the  groups  of 
facts  so  obtained,  and  ascertain  the  points  of  agreement, 
or  the  agreement  of  those  from  the  most  reliable  sources. 
(3)  Depend  for  the  most  part  on  printed  matter  approved 
by  acknowledged  experts,  or  accepted  by  persons  known  to 
be  well  informed  on  the  subject  in  question.  (4)  Talk  with 
experts.    (5)  Observe  or  perform  the  process. 


MAKING  THE  OUTLINE  143 

Having  collected,  recorded,  and  tested  the  material,  we 
shall  have  data  upon  which  to  build  our  talk.  All  memo- 
randa should  be  preserved  and  brought  to  class  for  use  if 
facts  are  questioned. 

EXERCISES 

1.  By  way  of  review,  collect  material  for  one  of  the  explana- 
tions suggested  below.  Pay  special  attention  to  testing  the  mate- 
rial. Use  none  which  is  not  above  question.  Bring  all  notes  to 
class,  and  be  prepared  to  give  an  attractive  talk  describing  how 
you  collected  your  data. 

1.  How  a  diving  bell  works.  6.  How  taxes  are  fixed. 

2.  How  to  make  an  attractive  7.   How  to  knit. 

bouquet.  8.  How  milk  bottles  are  cleaned. 

3.  How  rubber  is  made.  9.  How  salt  is  mined. 

4.  How  canal  locks  work.  10.  How  flour  is  made. 

5.  How  linen  is  made. 

2.   Prepare,  practice,  and  give  the  talk  of  explanation. 

The  Introduction.  The  first  words  of  the  talk  should  in- 
troduce the  subject  clearly.  A  listener  often  gets  a  wrong 
impression  from  the  opening  remarks  of  a  speaker,  and  so 
fails  to  understand  the  explanation.  It  is  therefore  impor- 
tant to  tell  directly  and  clearly  at  the  start  the  nature  of  the 
subject.  If  it  is  new  or  strange,  we  must  try  to  introduce 
the  subject  through  ideas  that  are  already  familiar  to  our 
hearers.  For  example,  suppose  we  wish  to  explain  the 
installation  in  a  house  of  an  apparatus  for  the  production 
of  acetylene  gas  for  illuminating  purposes.  The  name 
"acetylene"  may  mystify  many  of  the  hearers,  and  perhaps 
even  lead  them  to  think  that  a  chemical  experiment  is  to 
be  explained.  Misunderstanding  may  be  prevented  by  speak- 
ing of  a  problem  that  all  will  appreciate :  that  of  furnishing 


144  EXPLANATIONS 

lights  to  a  house  which  cannot  be  suppHed  with  electricity 
or  ordinary  gas. 

Another  valuable  aid  in  introducing  a  difficult  subject 
effectively  is  a  brief  statement  in  outline  form  of  the  points 
to  be  treated.  Such  an  outline,  like  the  table  of  contents 
of  a  book,  gives  an  advance  view  of  the  subject.  This  out- 
line may  be  presented  in  some  such  way  as  the  following : 
"In  explaining  how  to  make  a  sleigh,  I  shall  speak  first 
of  the  materials  needed ;  second,  of  the  shaping  of  the 
parts ;  third,  of  the  actual  construction  ;  and  fourth,  of  the 
finishing."  Or  again,  "  In  explaining  how  the  law  provides 
for  the  recall  of  city  officers,  I  shall  speak  first  of  the 
present  methods  by  which  the  people  remove  their  public 
servants ;  next,  of  the  methods  of  the  recall ;  and  last,  of 
the  results  which  may  be  expected."  The  student  will  notice 
that  only  the  most  important  divisions  of  the  talk  are 
given  in  the  prospective  outline,  and  that  they  are  so  brief 
and  clear  that  the  listener  can  easily  keep  them  in  mind 
during  the  talk. 

Every  introduction  should  arouse  interest.  Often  the  state- 
ment of  the  prospective  outline  or  a  sentence  connecting 
the  subject  with  familiar  ideas  will  be  sufficient  to  arouse 
interest.  In  other  cases  a  statement  of  the  use,  purpose,  or 
helpfulness  of  the  process  may  form  part  of  the  introduction. 

EXERCISE 

a.  Come  to  class  prepared  to  give  the  opening  sentences  for 
one  of  the  explanations  below.  Make  the  nature  of  the  subject 
clear  by  relating  the  explanation  to  familiar  things ;  give  a  brief 
prospective  outline,  and  add  whatever  else  is  needed  for  an  at- 
tractive introduction. 


MAKING  THE  OUTLINE  145 

6.  Give  the  complete  explanation. 

1.  How  city  life  differs  from  6.  The  working  of  the  party 

country  life.  caucus  in  Congress. 

2.  How  to  print  pictures.  7.  How  Oliver  Twist  was  re- 

3.  How- to  make  ice.    .  captured  by  the  thieves. 

4.  How  to  set  a  pane  of  glass.  8.  How  to  play  a  game. 

5.  How    to    mend   a   tear    in  9.  The  laws  of  the  pendulum. 

clotlyng.  10.  Why  some  birds  hop  and 

some  walk. 

The  Body  of  the  Talk.  What  we  have  called  the  equip- 
ment in  Chapter  I  is  the  setting  in  some  explanations. 
For  example,  if  we  examine  the  topics  in  the  exercise 
above,  we  shall  see  that  there  is  no  equipment  for  6  or  7- 
In  explaining  .the  party  caucus  we  shall  need  to  tell  of  the 
situations  in  Congress  which  lead  to  the  caucus.  In  talking 
about  Oliver  Twist  we  shall  have  to  state  the  condition  of 
affairs  which  ltd  to  the  desire  of  the  thieves  to  recapture  him. 
In  some  such  explanations,  however,  as  for  example,  that  of 
the  operation  of  a  bread-mixing  machine,  we  should  do  well 
to  give  a  brief  description  of  the  machine  and  its  setting. 

In  all  explanations  of  processes  the  statement  of  the 
actual  process  is  the  vital  part,  and  we  shall  need  to  ar- 
.  range  with  special  care  the  topics  covering  this  part  of 
the  talk. 

Arranging  the. Topics  by  the  Time  Order.  In  most  expla- 
nations the  topics  will  follow  the  time  order.  Thus,  in  tell- 
ing how  to  cover  a  book  with  paper,  or  how  to  develop  a 
film,  our  explanation  of  the  process  may  follow  the  steps  of 
the  actual  process  in  the  same  order  that-  they  take  place. 
-Again,  in  explaining  the  method  of  dry  farming  in  the 
Southwest,  •  the  .natural  order,  for  both  the  process  and  the 
.  talk,  would  be  :  the  long,  dry  summer  and  the  consequent 


146  EXPLANATIONS 

baking  of  the  soil ;  the  breaking  of  the  crust  with  the  disk- 
plow  in  the  autumn  ;   the  pulverizing  of  the  topsoil  after 
each  rain  ;  the  deeper  plowing ;   the  sowing  of  the  grain ; 
the  smoothing  of  the  surface. 

Outlining  by  Causes  and  Effects.  Often,  however,  there  is 
no  such  obvious  plan  to  follow,  and  the  sequence  must  be 
determined  by  cause  and  effect,  or  by  problem  and  sohttion. 

Thus,  an  explanation  of  the  relation  between  poverty  and 
drunkenness  requires  a  discussion  of  the  causes  which  are 
operating  at  the  same  time.  We  must  therefore  arrange  our 
material  according  to  a  cause-and-effect  plan. 

MAIN  TOPICS  FOR  A  CAUSE-AND-EFFECT   OUTLINE 

Poverty  and  Drunkenness 

[The  outline  should  be  read  horizontally,  each  effect  following  the 
cause  bearing  the  corresponding  number.] 

Causes  Effects 

1.  The  sordidness  of  the  home       1.   Desire  for  change  and  excite- 
■    life  of  the  very  poor.  ment,  to  escape  sordidness. 

2.  Long  hours  of  monotonous       2.   Fatigue. 

work. 

3.  Fatigue.  3.  Breaking  down   of  the  power 

to  resist  temptation. 

4.  Desire  for  excitement ;  and        4.   Drinking  ;  and  drunkenness. 

lack   of   power  to  resist 
temptation. 

In  giving  the  talk  we  should  do  well  to  follow  the  topics 
as  numbered  here. 

Outlining  by  Problems  and  Solutions.  If  we  wish  to  ex- 
plain how  motion  pictures  are  taken  under  water,  we  may 
arrange  our  topics  according  to  the  problem-and-solution 
method. 


MAKING  THE  OUTLINE  147 

MAIN  TOPICS  FOR  A  PROBLEM-AND-SOLUTION  OUTLINE 

Motion  Pictures  under  Water 
Problem  : 

1.  How  to  protect  the  operator  and  the  camera. 

2.  How  to  provide  an  outlook. 

3.  How  to  illuminate  the  water. 

Solution  : 

1.  Making  an  extensible,  pliant  tube  strong  enough   to  resist  the 

water  pressure  when  lowered  from  a  boat. 

2.  Providing  a  closed  room  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  with  a  plate- 

glass  window. 

3.  Providing  a  ventilating  and  a  signaling  system. 

4.  Arranging  for  a  cluster  of  electric  lights  to  illuminate  the  water. 

5.  Operating  the  machine. 

Let  US  remember  that  these  outhnes  concern  the  actual 
process  only.  For  the  complete  talk  we  shall  need  intro- 
duction and  conclusion,  and  often  a  statement  of  the  equip- 
ment, setting,  or  preliminary  conditions. 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Choose  one  of  the  subjects  below,  and  determine  what 
should  be  said  about  equipment,  preliminary  conditions,  setting,  or 
problem.  What  would  be  necessary  before  the  actual  process  is 
explained  ?    Prepare  that  particular  portion  of  the  talk. 

b.  Give  the  whole  explanation  in  class. 

1.  Cleaning  the  streets.  6.  How  trees  are  cared  for. 

2.  How  David  Copperfield's  aunt  7.  What  baking  does  to  food. 

helped  him.  8.   How  a  volcano  acts. 

3.  How  an  eclipse  takes  place.  9.  How  a  telegraph  instrument 

4.  How  to  harmonize  the  colors  works. 

in  a  room.  10.   How  the  use  of  submarines 

5.  How  factories  are  being  im-  raised  new  questions   in 

proved.  international  law. 


148  EXPLANATIONS 

2.  a.  Examine  the  subjects  below  to  determine  the  best  methods 
for  outlining  the  actual  processes.  Select  one  subject  for  each  of 
the  three  methods  of  outlining  which  we;  have  discussed  :  the  time 
order  of  topics,  the  cause-and-effect  order, '  arid  the  problem-and- 
solution  order.  Prepare  the  three  outlines,  and  bring  them  to 
class.  •     •  ■      '      , 

h.  Use  the  subject  outlined  by  the  time-order  plan,  and  prepare, 
the  complete  talk  of  explanation.  Give  the-talk,-in  class. 

1.  How  the  schoolyard  "should         11.   How  to  clean  windows.    . 

be  improved.  12.   Kydraulic  mining. 

2.  Why  the  mail-order  business        13.  Operation  of  a  gas  engine. 

is  successful.  14.  Manufacture  of  gasoline. 

3.  How  a  faucet  works.  15.  How  an  electric  bell  works. 

4.  How  the   direct  primary  is        16.  What  causes  summer  and 

carried  out.  winter.  • 

5.  How  an  election  takes  place.         17.   How  styles  in  dress  change. 

6.  How  to  simplify  housekeep-         18.  "How  bonds  are  issued  and 

ing.  '.  sold. 

7.  How  the  pyramids  were  built.         19.   How  Chinese  education  is 

8.  Why  imitation  fur  is  being  carried  on. 

used.  '  ■  2G,  How  a  store  takes  an  in 

9.  The  operation  of  a  time  lock.  '  ventory. 

10.  A'entilating  a  mine.  .        . 

3.  Prepare  and  give  in  class  the  complete  talk  of  explanation 
on  the  subject  in  Exercise  2  which  you  have  outlined  according  to 
the  cause-and-effect  plan. 

4.  Prepare  and  give  in  class  the  complete  talk  on  the  subject 
in  Exercise  2  outlined  according  to  the  problem-and-solution  plan. 

The  Conclusion.  Little  needs  to  be  added  to  what  has 
already  been  said  on  pages  17  and  132  about  conclusions. 
Just  as  the  introduction  arouses  interest,  the  conclusion 
points  out  the  justification  of  that  interest.'  This  is  done  by 
a  brief  general  st?tement  of  •  summar}'  ■  or  emphasis.  No 
talk  of  explanation  should  be  concluded  with  any  detail  of 


GIVING  THE  TALK  149 

the  explanation  itself;  the  subject  should  be  completely  ex- 
plained before  the  conclusion  begins.  For  example,  suppose 
we  have  just  explained  the  operation  of  the  hydroplane  by 
showing  how'  the  dri\er  climbs  out  of  his  seat.  We  may 
conclude  the  talk  in  two  sentences,  as  follows:  "This 
invention  makes  the  aeroplane  a  veritable  sea  bird,  able  to 
alight  on  land  or  water.   -It  is  an  indispensable  step  in  man's 

conquest  of  the  air.'' 

EXERCISE 

a.  Give  the  concluding  ^vords  for  .a  talk  of  explanation  on  one 
of  the  subjects  suggested  below. 

b.  Give  the  complete  talk. 

_1.  How  a  suspension  bridge  is  built. 

2.  How  salmon  are  caught. 

3.  How  the  big  corporations  water  their  stock. 

4.  How  to  build  a  teriiporary  dressing  room  for  swimmers. 

5.  How  apartments  are  changing  family  life. 

6.  Why  Russia  wants  Constantinople. 

7.  How  a  street-sweeping  machine  works. 

8.  How  a  pump  works. 

9.  How.  real-estate  speculators  get  an  unearned  profit. 
10.  How  to  make  a  quill. 

Giving  the  Explanation.  In  practicing  an  oral  explana- 
tion, we  must  make  it  as  much  as  possible  like  an  actual 
talk  before  the  class.  If  we  find  that  we  need  to  use 
copious  notes  in  the  first  practice,  we  must  continue  our 
practice  until  the  memoranda  are  reduced  to  a  few  cards  or 
slips  of  paper  appropriate  for  use  in  class.  At  all  times  the 
prepared  outline  should  be  rigidly  followed. 

Making  the  Outline  Clear.  Not  only  must  the  outline  be 
followed,  but  it  must  be  made  clear  to  the  hearers.  This 
does  not  mean  that  we  need  to  tell  them  when  each  new 


150  EXPLANATIONS 

topic  appears.  If  our  outline  is  a  good  one  the  steps  will 
show  themselves,  although  occasionally  a  new  step  may  be 
indicated  by  such  a  statement  as,  "  Let  us  next  see  how  to 
put  on  the  cover,"  or,  "  The  body  of  the  boat  is  now  finished 
and  we  have  next  to  put  in  the  centerboard  and  the  rudder." 

Giving  Larger  Ideas  First.  Again,  it  is  important  to  re- 
member to  give  larger  ideas  before  the  details,  so  that  the 
hearers  may  see  where  the  details  belong.  Just  as  the  whole 
talk  itself  must  begin  with  an  introduction  and  end  with  a 
conclusion,  so  each  main  topic  should  begin  with  the  sim- 
pler, more  obvious  facts,  then  proceed  to  the  intricacies  of 
the  explanation,  and  finally  end  with  a  larger  statement. 
For  example,  in  explaining  how  to  build  a  boat,  the  general 
size  and  shape  should  be  mentioned  before  telling  how  to 
cut  out  the  pieces  of  wood  for  the  various  parts.  The  details, 
then,  will  naturally  fall  into  their  places. 

The  listener  should  never  be  left  in  doubt  as  to  when  one 
topic  is  finished  and  another  begun.  If  there  might  be  any 
doubt,  the  speaker  may  indicate  the  completion  of  a  topic 
in  many  different  ways.  Such  remarks  as  the  following  are 
sometimes  used  :  "  Now  that  the  framework  is  completed  "  ; 
"When  the  framework  is  in  place";  "After  giving  the 
finishing  touches  to  the  framework." 

Showing  Connections.  In  most  explanations  the  later 
topics  have  important  bearing  on  the  topics  already  given, 
and  such  relationships  should  be  made  clear  either  by  care- 
ful references  or  by  definite  statements.  For  example,  in 
explaining  how  to  lay  out  a  baseball  field,  suppose  the  size 
and  position  of  the  diamond  has  been  shown  and  the  home 
plate  described.  The  speaker  may  then  show  that  the 
pointed  side   of   the   plate   is  toward  the  catcher's  position 


GIVING  THE  TALK  15  I 

because  the  plate  itself  fits  inside  the  corner  of  the  dia- 
mond. Thus  he  establishes  a  connection  between  the  shape 
of  the  plate  and  the  base  lines  of  the  diamond.  Again, 
after  stating  that  the  pitcher's  box  is  sixty  feet  six  inches 
away  from  the  point  of  the  home  plate,  he  may  state  that 
this  position  is  about  three  feet  (one  pace)  in  front  of  a 
line  joining  first  base  with  third.  The  relation  between  two 
parts  of  an  explanation  should  always  be  brought  out  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  the  talk  a  consistent  whole. 

Finally,  it  should  be  clear  to  the  hearers  how  each  step 
helps  in  the  completion  of  the  process.  Thus,  in  telling 
about  the  coloring  of  potter}^,  one  may  refer  frequently  to 
the  process  of  baking  which  is  to  follow,  pointing  out  what 
effect  this  will  have  on  the  tints  w^hich  are  being  used. 
Thus  the  parts  of  the  explanation  are  connected  with  the 
whole  result  to  be  attained,  and  the  speech  is  made  a  unit. 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Each  of  the  topics  below  is  supposed  to  be  one  step  or 
part  of  a  process.  Choose  one  topic,  prepare  the  talk  explaining 
that  particular  step,  and  give  the  talk  in  class.  Make  the  opening 
and  the  closing  statement  as  broad  and  simple  as  seems  appropriate. 

h.  Prepare  and  deliver  the  complete  explanation. 

1.  How  the  current  is  supplied,  in  explaining  how  an  electric  car  works. 

2.  How  the  machine  is  oiled,  in  telling  how  to  care  for  a  sewing 
machine. 

3.  How  to  prune  trees,  in  explaining  the  care  of  trees. 

4.  The  stacking  of  the  hay,  in  explaining  how  hay  is  harvested. 

5.  How  to  make  a  drop  kick,  in  explaining  how  the  ball  is  kicked 
in  football. 

2.  a.  Each  of  the  topics  below  gives  two  steps  in  the  explana- 
tion of  a  process.    Choose  one  of  the  subjects,  or  another  that  you 


152  EXPLANATIONS 

like  better,  and  give  the  sentence  or  sentences  which  will  connect 
the  two  steps. 

b.  Prepare  and  deliver  the  complete  explanation. 

1.  Making  a  screen  door  (connect  the  step  of  tacking  the  wire  onto 
the  frame  with  that  of  nailing  on  the  molding). 

2.  The  influence  of  the  saloon  (connect  the  cashing  of  pay  checks 
for  the  workingman  with  the  treating  habit). 

3.  Making  a  rag  rug  (connect  cutting  the  rags  with  the  thickness 
of  the  rug). 

4.  Making  muffins  (connect  the  use  of*  soiir  milk  with  the  use 
of  soda).  ■   .» •      ' 

5.  Using  a. plow  (show  tjie  connection  betwee¥),tbe'way  tq  hold  the 
handles  and  the  proper  depth  of  plowing). 

3.  a.   Each  of  the  subjects  given  below  indicates  one  of  the 
steps  of  a  process.    Choose  one  subject,  and -give  the  sentence 
or  sentences  which  will  show  how  the  proper  performance  of  this    ' 
step  will  help  to  bring  about  the  result  desired.   \  i 

b.   Prepare  and  deliver  the  complete  explanation- of  the  largei  '• 
subject. 

1.  Saddling  a  horse  (how  the  tightening  of  the  girth  affects  the 
safety  and  comfort  of  the  rider  and  the  horse). 

2.  Preserving  fruit  (how  the  thorough  cookiiig  of  .thd  fruit  affects 
the  keeping  quality). 

3.  Planting  potatoes  (how  deep  plowing  affects  the  crop). 

4.  Making  a  cotton  dress  (how  the  preliminary  shrinking  of  the 
goods  affects  the  fit  of  the  completed  dress). 

5.  Making  bricks  (how  the  drying  of  the  clay  bricks  affects  the  final 
quality  of  the  product). 

Aids  in  Explanation  :  the  Use  of  Drawings.  The  ability 
to  make  diagrams  and  rough  sketches  while  talking  has  so 
great  a  practical  value  that  every  student  should  stnve  to 
acquire""  it.  Both  in  school  and  in  life,  situations  in  whicfi 
the  use  of  the  ohalk  or  pe:acil  is  almost-  indispen-sable  are  of 
frequent  occurrence?    Even  without  special  training  or  ability  ^ 


DRAWINGS  AND  DEMONSTRATIONS  153 

we  should  make  the  attempt  and  do  our  best.  We  shall  be 
surprised  to  find  how  rapidly  skill  is  gained  with  practice. 

Of  the  explanations  given  in  class  a  large  part  require 
diagrams.  We  could  hardly  explain  the  making  of  a  dress, 
the  laying  out  of  a  baseball  field,  the  building  of  a  boat, 
the  making  of  an  electric  bell,  or  the  installation  of  a  hot- 
water  system,  without  drawings  of  some  kind.  And  draw- 
ings would  certainly  help  us  in  explaining  how  to  make  a 
lamp  shade,  the  cause  of  earthquakes,  how  to  carry  on  dry 
farming,  the  setting  of  a  dining  table,  and  so  forth. 

How  to  make  the  Diagrams.  In  a  rough  freehand  sketch, 
such  as  we  make  while  speaking,  it  is  best  to  use  few  lines 
and  as  little  detail  as  possible.  We  should  make  the  draw- 
ing as  large  as  will  be  appropriate,  and  should  be  sure  that 
the  lines  are  heavy  enough  to  be  seen  by  all.  Before  turn- 
ing to  the  blackboard,  we  should  state  the  reason  for  the 
drawing.  The  first  few  lines  should  show  the  general  shape 
of  the  article,  and  its  position  in  relation  to  the  ground  or 
other  objects.  Thus,  in  sketching  an  aeroplane,  we  must 
not  fill  in  the  details  of  motor,  seat,  and  rudder  until  we 
have  shown  the  general  size  of  the  planes  and  the  direction 
in  which  the  machine  flies.  In  drawing  a  reflectoscope, 
we  should  indicate  at  the  start  the  direction  of  the  screen. 
Again,  it  is  advisable,  if  the  subject  is  a  new  one  to  the 
audience,  to  give  some  hint  as  to  the  real  size  of  the 
object.  A  boy  once  gave  an  explanation  of  a  drill  for  an 
oil  well.  Some  of  the  members  of  the  class  gathered  from 
his  first  remarks  that  the  drill  was  about  the  size  of  a 
clothespin,  whereas  it  was  really  thirty  feet  long  —  twice 
as  high  as  the  schoolroom.  What  the  boy  might  have  done 
first  was  to  sketch  a  derrick,  remarking  as  he  did  so  that 


1 54  EXPLANATIONS 

it  was  a  big  frame  for  hoisting  machinery,  about  as  high 
as  a  four-story  building. 

Using  Objects.  Demonstrations  and  the  exhibition  of 
pictures,  maps,  or  other  objects  are  frequently  even  more 
important  than  the  making  of  drawings.  Would  it  not 
be  foolish  for  a  person  to  confine  himself  to  words  or  to 
drawings  in  attempting  to  explain  a  potato  peeler,  when  he 
might  easily  bring  to  class  the  object  itself,  or  even  show 
it  in  actual  operation  ?  When  demonstrations  are  made,  it 
is  important  that  everyone  have  a  good  view  of  the  speaker. 
Sometimes  an  explanation  outside  the  classroom  can  be 
arranged,  as  in  the  case  of  an  exercise  in  surveying,  the 
workings  of  a  spray  pump,  or  the  use  of  a  machine  in 
the  shops.  Often,  when  it  is  impossible  to  show  the  actual 
process,  the  finished  product  may  be  brought  to  class  and 
used  in  the  talk.  Thus,  we  might  show  a  violin  w^hile 
telling  how  the  instrument  is  made.  Or,  as  suggested  in 
Chapters  I  and  VII,  we  may  bring  models,  pictures,  or 
prepared  diagrams. 

We  may  profit  by  observing  the  methods  of  business 
people,  and  of  the  teachers  of  mathematics,  science,  cook- 
ing, sewing,  and  shop  work ;  and  by  trying  to  acquire  the 
ability  which  they  have  to  work  and  explain  simultaneously. 

Cautions  in  using  Aids.  It  frequently  happens  that  one 
needs  to  make  an  explanation  when  it  is  inconvenient  to 
draw  or  to  demonstrate.  We  should  therefore  cultivate  the 
use  of  vivid  language  so  that  we  can  make  clear  word  pic- 
tures, and  should  give  ourselves  much  practice  in  explaining 
without  any  other  helps. 

Both  in  making  drawings  and  in  using  articles  before 
the  class  we  must  not  overdo  these  helps,  nor  rely  on  them 


TECHNICAL  LANGUAGE  155 

to  take  the  place  of  careful  preparation  and  good  speaking. 
And  we  must  remember  to  talk  to  the  audience,  and  not 
allow  the  helps  to  interfere  with  our  proper  attitude  toward 
our  hearers. 

Using  Technical  Expressions.  Technical  terms  are  often 
a  great  help  in  explanation,  but  they  must  be  used  with 
discretion.  Their  value  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  have 
meanings  much  more  definite  than  ordinary  words,  as  well 
as  in  the  fact  that  they  save  time.  The  musical  term 
'  etude '  is  much  more  definite,  than  the  more  common 
terms  '  study  '  or  '  musical  exercise.'  The  term  '  peristyle  ' 
is  shorter  and  more  definite-  than  the  expression  '  system 
of  columns  around  a  building.' 

Technical  terms  can  be  used  effectively  only  when  they 
will  be  understood  by  our  hearers.  Our  language  must 
always  be  adapted  to  the  audience.  Thus,  an  explanation 
of  an  electric  engine  to  men  familiar  with  electrical  appa- 
ratus will  be  expressed  in  quite  different  terms  from  those 
that  would  be  appropriate  in  explaining  the  machine  to  a 
group  of  school  children.  If  we  are  talking  about  athletics, 
and  know  that  our  hearers  will  understand  us,  wc  may  use 
the  technical  terms  'punt,'  'off  side,'  'foul,'  'error,' 
'puck,'  'tape,'  'shot,'  'guard,'  etc.  But  if  tlie  majority  of 
our  hearers  might  not  follow  us  if  we  used  such  terms,  we 
should  discard  them  all  for  simple  language  that  could  not 
fail  to  be  within  the  experience  of  the  average  person. 

There  is  no  objection,  however,  to  the  use  of  a  moderate 
number  of  technical  terms  in  a  talk  to  an  average  audience, 
provided  the  unfamiliar  words  are  carefully  and  clearly  ex- 
plained. For  example,  in  telling  how  a  telegraphic  key 
works,  we  might  use  the  word  '  contact,'  defining  it  when 


1 56  EXPLANATIONS 

first  brought  into  the  talk  somewhat  as  follows  :  "  The  pur- 
pose of  the  key  is  to  make  contacts  for  very  short  periods 
of  time ;  that  is,  to  bring  two  pieces  of  metal  together  for 
an  instant  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  the  electricity  to  flow 
through  the  wires."  After  such  a  definition  the  word  may 
be  safely  used. 

If  the  speaker  is  thoroughly  versed  in  his  subject,  he 
may  be  misled  into  using,  without  explanation,  many  terms 
which  need  defining,  thereby  confusing  his  hearers  and 
spoiling  his  speech.  For  instance,  a  person  could  not  suc- 
ceed in  explaining  a  cake  receipt  to  an  average  audience 
of   boys   and    girls    if    he    let   the   expression    "  cream   the 

butter"  go  undefined, 

EXERCISES 

I.  Choose  one  of  the  subjects  below,  or  another  equally  good. 
Prepare  a  complete  talk  of  explanation,  and  in  the  talk  use  a  dia- 
gram which  you  draw  while  you  are  speaking. 

1.  The  cause  of  the  earth's  rotation. 

2.  How  to  make  a  collar. 

3.  The  principle  of  the  vacuum  cleaner. 

4.  How  a  car  controller  works. 

5.  How  a  water  wheel  works. 

6.  The  internal  structure  of  the  pyramids. 

7.  The  convenient  arrangement  of  a  kitchen. 

8.  The  principle  of  the  silo. 

9.  The  principle  of  the  electric  motor. 
10.  How  to  make  a  clothes  bag. 

II.  How  an  oil  cup  works. 

12.  How  to  make  a  sofa  pillow. 

13.  How  the  block  system  works. 

14.  How  an  electric-light  switch  works. 

15.  How  to  brace  a  fence  post. 

16.  How  to  make  a  hand  bag. 

17.  How  an  electric  stove  works. 


TECHNICAL  LANGUAGE  157 

18.  How  to  show  that  a  fire  needs  oxygen. 

19.  How  a  street  is  paved. 

20.  The  different  kinds  of  aeroplanes. 

21.  A  convenient  arrangement  of  kitchen  utensils. 

22.  The  structure  of  a  flower,  nut,  or  seed. 

23.  The  meaning  of  some  Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 

24.  How  the  blade  of  a  mowing  machine  works. 

25.  How  to  run  a  mowing  machine. 

26.  How  to  make  a  clotheshorse. 

27.  How  a  snowplow  works. 

28.  How  to  make  a  wall  pocket. 

29.  How  a  valve  works. 

30.  How  a  furnace  works. 

2.  Prepare  a  complete  talk  of  explanation  on  one  of  the  sub- 
jects listed  below.  Use  the  best  helps  available.  If  possible,  per- 
form the  actual  process  in  class,  speaking  as  you  work.  If  this 
is  not  feasible,  use  models  or  pictures,  or  bring  and  use  com- 
pleted articles. 

1.  How  to  mix  colors  to  produce  certain  shades  or  tints. 

2.  The  principle  of  the  lever. 

3.  How  the  earth  acts  as  a  magnet. 

4.  The  different  strokes  used  in  fencing  or  swimming. 

5.  How  to  crochet. 

6.  How  to  spin  the  diabolo. 

7.  How  to  correct  the  reading  of  a  compass. 

8.  How  to  take  a  time-exposure  picture. 

9.  How  the  gyroscope  works. 

10.  How  to  feather  oars. 

11.  How  to  make  the  notes  on  a  cornet  (zither,  clarinet,  violin,  etc.). 

12.  How  to  tie  a  string  onto  a  kite. 

13.  How  piano  keys  produce  sounds. 

14.  How  to  make  the  strokes  in  tennis. 

15.  The  plan  of  a  cathedral. 

16.  How  the  stereoscope  works. 

17.  The  half-nelson  hold  in  wrestling. 

18.  What  Millet  means  by  his  picture  "  The  Man  with  the  Hoe." 


158 


EXPLANATIONS 


19.  How  to  make  a  cloth  bag  for  a  broom. 

20.  How  to  show  the  composition  of  light. 

21.  How  to  splice  a  rope. 

22.  How  to  do  a  trick. 

23.  Plaster  of  Paris. 

24.  The  various  kinds  of  arches. 

25.  The  difference  between  the  Fahrenheit  and  the  Centigrade 
thermometers. 

26.  How  books  are  bound. 

27.  How  to  make  a  cloth  cap. 

28.  How  the  siphon  works. 

29.  The  principle  of  the  microscope. 

30.  How  to  carve  wood. 

3.  Prepare  an  explanation  suggested  by  one  of  the  technical 
terms  given  below.  In  some  cases  an  explanation  of  the  meaning 
may  be  sufficient,  but  in  others  a  statement  of  a  process  will  be 
required.  When  the  expression  is  first  used  in  the  talk,  give 
its  meaning.  It  may  then  be  used  repeatedly,  without  further 
definition. 


1. 

Semaphore. 

11. 

Conservation. 

21. 

Apperception. 

2. 

French  knot. 

12. 

Depreciation. 

22. 

Binding  post. 

3. 

Reenforced  concrete. 

13. 

Mayonnaise. 

23. 

Reduction  works, 

4. 

Initiative. 

14. 

Nave. 

24. 

Gore. 

5. 

Separator. 

15. 

Sinking  fund. 

25. 

Credit. 

6. 

Induction. 

16. 

Cupola. 

'  26. 

Electromagnet. 

7. 

Bias. 

17. 

Totem  pole. 

27. 

Baste  (a  fowl). 

8. 

Zodiac. 

18. 

Psyche  knot. 

28. 

Frill. 

9. 

Hemstitch. 

19. 

Armature. 

29. 

Broil  (meat). 

10. 

Water  glass. 

20. 

Stew. 

30. 

Gears. 

Subjects  for  Explanations.  It  is  desirable  that  every  sub- 
ject on  which  we  talk  shall  be  of  interest  to  our  hearers. 
With  this  end  in  view  we  shall  now  practice  thinking  out 
new  subjects  for  explanations.  In  making"  up  these  lists 
there  should  ordinarily  be  no  objection  to  the  use  of  such 


SUBJECTS  FOR  PRACTICE  159 

helps  and  suggestions  as  can  be  obtained  from  dictionaries, 
encyclopedias,  textbooks,  and  other  printed  matter.  Per- 
sonal observations  of  the  daily  life  around  us  will  also 
furnish  topics.  Lists  of  subjects  will  be  found  on  pages 
22-24  ^iid  ii^  Appendix  V. 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  Think  out  the  possible  subjects  on  which  you  could  talk, 
suggested  by  six  of  the  topics  below.  Write  down  five  topics  for 
explanations  from  each  of  the  six  fields  —  f/ii/iy  topics  in  all. 
Bring  the  list  to  class,  to  exchange  with  another  student. 

h.  Choose  one  of  the  topics  in  your  list,  and  prepare  a  talk 
of  explanation. 

1.  School  affairs.  6.  Amusements. 

2.  Business.  7.  Science. 

3.  Household  schemes.  8.  Work  with  tools. 

4.  Land  transportation.  9.   Government. 

5.  Water  transportation.  10.   Business  meetings. 

2.  a.  Write  down  and  bring  to  class  five  topics  for  explana- 
tions in  each  of  six  of  the  fields  listed  below.  Let  the  subjects 
be  those  which  you  can,  if  given  time,  prepare  for  explanation  to 
the  class.  Further,  let  them  be  subjects  more  difficult  than  are 
usually  selected,  so  that  the  members  of  the  class  would  make  a 
real  gain  by  hearing  them.    Bring  the  list  for  comparison. 

h.  Prepare  one  of  the  subjects  for  an  explanation  in  class. 

1.  Farming.  6.  Army  and  navy. 

2.  Manufacturing.  7.  Architecture. 

3.  Caring  for  animals.  8.  Traveling. 

4.  Library  affairs.  9.  Sports. 

5.  Art.  10.  Camping. 

3.  a.  Think  out  five  possible  subjects  in  six  of  the  fields  listed 
below  —  subjects  which  you  know  little   about,   but  which  you 


i6o 


EXPLANATIONS 


would  like  to  have  explained  in  class  by  other  students.  Bring 
the  list  to  class.  When  the  lists  of  other  members  of  your  class 
are  read,  note  how  many  of  their  topics  are  those  on  which  you 
might,  with  a  moderate  amount  of  preparation,  give  explanations. 
b.  Exchange  papers  with  another  student  and  choose  a  topic 
from  his  list.    Prepare  and  give  the  explanation  in  class. 


1.  Mining. 

2.  Electricity. 

3.  Chemistry. 

4.  Sciences  of  the  household. 

5.  Etiquette. 


6.  Astronomy. 

7.  Post-office  affairs. 

8.  Vocations. 

9.  Politics. 
10.  Inventions. 


4.  Prepare  a  talk  of  explanation,  using  all  the  experience  you 
have  thus  far  gained. 

SPECIMEN  SUBJECTS! 


1.  Government 

Electoral  college. 
Preferential  shop. 
Preferential  voting. 
Ward  system. 
Nomination  by  petition. 
Nominating  convention. 
Proportional  representation. 

2.  Classroom  and  Shops 

How  to 

prove  addition, 
study  history, 
measure  curved  distances, 
run  a  planer, 
run  a  band  saw. 
turn  wood, 
sterilize  dishes, 
center  a  machinist's 
hammer. 


Habeas  corpus. 
Direct  primaries. 
Bonds. 

Assessment  district. 
Naturalization. 
Pairing  votes. 
Referendum  vote. 


How  to  make 
a  trial  balance, 
a  hatpin. 

a  hammer  handle, 
a  chisel  handle. 
a  bookcase, 
iron  bars, 
a  chair. 

a  rocking  chair, 
a  large  bolt. 


1  This  list  has  been  largely  taken  from  actual  Oral  English  lessons. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  PRACTICE 


i6i 


3.  jSIanufacturing 

Macaroni. 

Maple  sirup. 

Concrete  piling. 

Glass. 

Rifle  barrels. 

Hydraulic  elevator. 

Electric  signs. 

Pencils. 

Matches. 

Silk. 

Wooden  shoes. 

Rugs. 

Cloth. 

Shingles. 

4.  Technical 

How  to 

How  to  make 

test  milk  for  water. 

•     a  time  alarm. 

enlarge  kodak  pictures. 

a  fire  alarm. 

prepare  canvas  for 

raised  doughnuts. 

painting. 

electric  alarms. 

take  freak  pictures. 

a  transformer. 

find  one's  way  without  a 

an  ariel. 

compass. 

a  solar  heater. 

find  the  North  Star. 

a  fire  extinguisher. 

find  the  poles  of  a 

a  weather  vane. 

magnet. 

The  working  of 

show  air  pressure. 

a  brick  kiln. 

collect  spilled  mercury. 

an  arc  light. 

splice  a  cable. 

a  floating  dry  dock. 

paint  china. 

a  swimming  machine. 

How  to  make 

a  dredger. 

blue  prints. 

a  steam  shovel. 

electric  batteries. 

a  carburetor. 

a  hair  hydrometer. 

a  water-power  washing 

an  electric  motor. 

machine. 

a  thermometer. 

a  geyser. 

hydrogen. 

a  lumber  chute. 

a  weather  indicator. 

an  automobile  brake. 

a  simple  searchlight. 

a  mimeograph. 

a  telegraph  instrument. 

a  steam  engine. 

an  enlarging  frame  for 

a  typewriter. 

drawing. 

a  lightning  rod. 

a  camera. 

an  adding  machine. 

l62 


EXPLANATIONS 


5.  Camp  Fire  Girls  (The  handbook  gives  over  700  topics.) 


How  to 

care  for  birds. 

dye  cloth. 

prepare  a  well-balanced 

diet, 
use  a  chafing  dish, 
organize  a  card  system, 
manage  a  canoe, 
prepare  a  fowl  for  the 

table, 
detect  adulterations, 
buy  meat  economically, 
put  away  clothing  for 

the  summer, 
clean  aluminum, 
care  for  an  ice  chest, 
prepare  milk  for  a  baby. 


How  to  make 

sandals. 

a  headband. 

a  camp  bed. 

a  hat. 

lace. 

an  expense  account. 

a  flag. 

a  weather  record. 

a  stencil. 
How  to 

tell  the  weather  signs. 

do  china  painting. 

tell  the  different  kinds  of 
cloth. 

care  for  a  setting  hen. 

organize  a  celebration. 


do  camp  cooking. 

ride  a  horse. 

protect  food  in  a  camp. 

decorate  a  float. 

Boy  Scouts  (The  handbook 

gives  over  350  topics.) 

How  to 

H 

ow 

test  seed. 

plants  use  soil. 

get  rid  of  weeds. 

the  governor  is  elected, 

read  a  weather  map. 

a  planer  works. 

find  important 

H 

ow  to  make 

constellations. 

flies  for  fishing. 

handle  bees. 

a  bow  and  arrow. 

dispose  of  camp  garbage. 

a  target. 

lay  shingles. 

an  iron  hook. 

use  the  steel  square. 

a  raft. 

sterilize  milk. 

a  cement  flowerpot. 

splice  and  tape  wire. 

a  boat. 

help  up  a  fallen  horse. 

CHAPTER   X 
GOOD  USE  OF  THE   VOICE 

The  speaker's  mind  should  be  so  full  of  his  subject  and 
of  his  belief  in  its  importance  to  the  audience  that  there 
will  be  no  thought  about  the  process  by  which  the  voice  is 
produced.  Yet  in  our  school  practice  we  need  to  give  the 
voice  some  intelligent  training,  so  that  it  will  be  ready  to 
respond  to  all  reasonable  demands.  There  are  few  voices 
that  cannot  be  made  more  responsive  by  care  and  drill. 

Ease  in  Speaking.  In  the  use  of  the  voice,  exercises  can 
be  of  secondary  importance  only ;  a  right  attitude  of  mind  is 
primary.  Experienced  speakers  tell  us  that  no  organs  reflect 
nervousness  more  quickly  and  obviously  than  do  the  organs 
of  speech.  We  must  banish,  therefore,  all  the  wandering 
thoughts  that  suggest  fear  and  failure.  We  must  summon 
to  our  aid  all  the  qualities  of  mind  that  produce  quietness, 
confidence,  alertness,  enthusiasm.  A  favorable  state  of  mind 
is  essential  to  the  successful  use  of  the  voice. 

In  training  the  voice,  every  speaker  will  aim  to  attain 
ease,  distinctness  of  enunciation,  and  variety  of  tone,  and 
so  to  combine  these  qualities  that  the  voice  will  be  an 
efficient  medium  of  forceful  expression. 

Control  of  the  Breath.  Let  the  throat  and  the  breath  do 
their  work  naturally.  The  speaking  tubes  must  not  be  made 
tense,  for  a  hard,  harsh  sound  would  be  the  result.  The 
voice  should  be   round  and   open   in   shape  —  if  one   can 

163 


1 64  GOOD  USE  OF  THE  VOICE 

imagine  it  having  shape  —  rather  than  flat  or  small.  This 
applies  to  all  tones,  high  or  low. 

To  breathe  correctly  while  speaking,  the  student  must 
assume  an  active  standing  position  ;  that  is,  he  should  feel 
the  same  strength  and  readiness  of  body  that  he  would  feel 
if  preparing  to  lift  a  heavy  weight,  or  to  strike  a  heavy 
blow.  The  lungs  should  be  filled  by  an  outward,  lateral 
expansion  of  the  trunk  in  all  directions. 

Talking  is  easiest  and  most  satisfactory  when  there  is  a 

large  reservoir  of  air  back  of  the   tones  ;    one  cannot  do 

heavy  physical  work  or  extensive  speaking  with  exhausted 

lungs.    Two  common  causes  of  loss  of  breath  are  the  failure 

to  fill  the  lungs  in  the  first  place,  and  incorrect  phrasing,  that 

is,  wrong  grouping  of  words,  which  leads  to  breathing  at  the 

wrong  time.    It  is  not  difficult  to  learn  to  group  words  between 

the  natural  punctuation  marks  so  that  the  lungs  can  be  kept 

well  filled. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Practice  reading  a  short  selection  at  home,  striving  for  calm- 
ness of  mind  and  ease  in  using  the  throat.  Try  to  make  the  tones 
as  smooth  as  possible,  eliminating  all  nasal  quality  and  harshness. 
Read  the  selection  in  class,  and  show  the  effect  of  the  practice. 

2.  Assume  the  standing  position  described  above,  and  practice 
deep  breathing.  As  the  air  is  inhaled  and  exhaled,  the  body  immedi- 
ately above  the  waist  line  should  expand  and  contract.  After  practic- 
ing faithfully,  read  a  selection,  using  the  same  position  and  manner 
of  breathing.  Study  the  selection  so  that  you  can  make  groupings 
of  words  which  will  allow  you  to  use  natural  pauses  for  inhaling. 
It  may  be  well  to  mark  these  places.    Read  the  selecdon  in  class. 

Note.  The  object  of  this  exercise  is  not  to  require  any  student  to  change 
a  good  style  of  speaking  which  is  natural  to  him,  or  to  make  him  conscious 
of  what  he  ought  to  forget.    It  is  solely  to  help  those  who  need  help. 


DISTINCTNESS  165 

Use  of  Tongue  and  Lips.  If  the  student  will  read  a  few 
sentences  aloud,  letting  the  tongue  lie  inactive  in  the  mouth 
and  making  the  lips  do  most  of  the  work,  he  will  see  how 
important  for  distinct  speaking  is  the  use  of  the  tongue. 
Then  by  reversing  the  process,  keeping  the  lips  still  and 
using  only  the  tongue,  the  assistance  rendered  by  the  lips 
will  be  clear.  Foreigners,  especially  the  French,  make  large 
use  of  the  muscles  of  the  face  and  lips  in  speaking.  Many 
of  us  do  not  open  the  mouth  enough  to  make  it  possible 
for  the  lips  to  do  any  work.  The  difference  between  tire- 
some, indistinct  talking  and  bright,  clear  speaking  is  fre- 
quently the  same  as  that  between  unresponsive  lips  and 
active,  expressive  ones.  Some  speakers  who  have  very  little 
strength  of  voice  have  become  successful  on  account  of  the 
distinctness  of  their  enunciation. 

A  little  practice  each  day  with  the  tongue  and  lips  will 
result  in  great  improvement.  Observation  in  a  mirror  will 
be  found  helpful.  The  object  of  the  following  exercises  is 
to  make  the  muscles  of  expression  of  the  face,  the  tongue, 
and  the  lips  so  responsive  to  the  mind  of  the  speaker  that 
his  talking  will  be  more  effective. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Read  a  short  selection  aloud  at  home,  keeping  first  the  lips 
and  then  the  tongue  as  inactive  as  possible.  Next  practice  using 
both  tongue  and  lips  as  much  as  possible.  Do  you  notice  a  differ- 
ence in  distinctness  ?  Which  helps  more,  tongue  or  lips  ?  Read  the 
piece  in  class,  making  distinctness  your  special  aim. 

2.  Practice  at  home  the  following  sounds,  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  into  greater  use  tlie  lips  and  other   facial   muscles  of 

expression  : 

00-ee-oo-ee-oo-ee 


l66  GOOD  USE  OF  THE  VOICE 

Practice  a  short  selection,  paying  particular  attention  to  the  greater 
use  of  the  lips.    Read  it  in  class. 

3.  Practice  at  home  the  following  sounds,  for  the  purpose  of 
using  the  tongue  more  effectively.  Let  the  jaw  and  lips  be  left 
inactive. 

kla-khx-kla 

kala-kala-kala    (Sound  a  as  in  '  father.') 

Practice  a  short  selection,  paying  particular  attention  to  the  sharp, 
accurate  sounds  made  by  the  tongue.    Read  the  selection  in  class. 

4.  Practice  these  lip  sounds,  allowing  the  lips  to  relax  as  much 

as  possible : 

btib-biib-bub 

Prepare  a  talk  to  give  in  class,  emphasizing  the  lip  sounds. 

5.  Practice  these  sounds,  keeping  the  lips  and  the  jaw  as  inactive 
as  possible : 

Gay  little  daJidelion 

Prepare  another  talk  for  class,  emphasizing  the  tongue  sounds. 

6.  Practice  these  sounds  for  the  simultaneous  use  of  lips  and 


tongue 


blub-bhcb-blub 


7.  Prepare  another  reading  to  give  in  class,  using  the  lips  and 
tongue  effectively.  Make  no  special  effort  to  exaggerate.  Let 
teacher  and  classmates  judge  whether  or  not  your  enunciation  is 
distinct  and  otherwise  satisfactory. 

Variety  and  Emphasis.  A  voice  without  variety  would 
have  no  attractiveness,  and  could  not  show  the  relative  im- 
portance of  the  ideas  expressed.  The  speaker  who  would 
make  his  spoken  thoughts  effective,  therefore,  must  vary 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  his  voice.  This  he  may  do  in  at 
least  three  ways :  he  may  change  the  rate  of  speaking,  or 
the  loudness  of  tone,  or  the  pitch  of  the  voice. 


RATE  OF  SPEAKING  167 

The  Rate  of  Speaking  :  Variety  in  Speed.  A  change  in 
the  rate  of  speaking  naturally  emphasizes  a  thought.  Thus, 
we  may  call  attention  to  certain  thoughts  by  clearly  separat- 
ing one  word  from  another  and  enunciating  each  with  ex- 
treme distinctness.  We  can  show  the  approach  to  the  end 
of  a  paragraph  or  to  the  end  of  a  speech  by  the  same 
method.  By  the  opposite  method,  that  of  changing  to  a 
faster  rate,  we  can  indicate  the  plunge  into  a  new  thought 
or  a  new  line  of  argument. 

Most  of  us  should  learn  to  speak  faster :  there  is  too 
much  slow,  tiresome  talking.  Of  course  a  person  who 
speaks  fast  must  speak  very  distinctly.  He  must  also  watch 
the  faces  of  his  hearers  to  see  that  they  can  follow  him.  In 
general,  intricate  or  very  important  parts  of  the  talk  must  be 
spoken  slowly,  while  sections  which  are  simple  or  uniform  in 
thought  —  narrative,  for  example  —  may  be  given  more  rap- 
idly. In  any  case,  one  should  begin  the  talk  slowly  and  dis- 
tinctly.   The  first  words  of  a  speech  are  too  often  missed. 

Punctuation  in  Speaking.  Almost  every  punctuation  mark 
in  written  composition  has  its  counterpart  in  oral  composi- 
tion. Short  pauses  show  commas  ;  and  successively  longer 
ones  show  semicolons,  colons,  and  periods.  Paragraph  end- 
ings are  indicated  by  much  longer  pauses,  and  perhaps  by 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  speaker's  body.  Quotation 
marks  may  be  shown  by  an  abrupt  pause  before  the  quota- 
tion and  another  at  the  end,  as  well  as  by  a  change  in  the 
pitch  of  the  voice.  The  dash  may  be  shown  by  an  abrupt 
stop,  and  the  exclamation  point  by  increased  speed  or  force 
toward  the  end. 

The  Judicious  Use  of  Pauses.  Most  inexperienced  speakers 
are  afraid  to  use  pauses  ;  they  feel  that  the  talking  must  be 


i68  GOOD  USE  OF  THE  VOICE 

kept  going  else  they  will  lose  either  the  attention  of  the 
hearers  or  confidence  in  themselves.  These  fears  are  usu- 
ally groundless. 

The  proper  use  of  pauses  accomplishes  two  things  :  it 
breaks  up  monotony,  and  it  allows  time  for  the  hearers  to 
get  the  meaning.  Too  many  speeches,  even  by  experienced 
talkers,  have  a  machinelike  monotony.  Such  a  style  of 
speaking  distracts  the  attention.  Again,  on  a  serious  sub- 
ject listeners  need  time  to  grasp  an  important  or  novel 
idea.  Often  we  like  to  turn  away  from  a  book  to  think 
out  what  we  have  just  read,  but  in  the  case  of  a  speech 
the  hearer  has  no  opportunity  to  do  this.  For  these  reasons, 
the  speech  which  is  characterized  by  haste  is  usually  void 
of  results.  By  making  no  pause  after  a  question,  or  after 
a  challenge,  or  after  an  important  statement  or  summary, 
the  succeeding  ideas  crowd  into  the  consciousness  before  the 
first  have  had  time  to  make  the  proper  impression.  The 
student  need  never  think  that  his  hearers  will  suppose  that 
he  is  hesitating ;  hesitation  produces  a  different  effect. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Select  a  short  paragraph  to  read  in  class.  Practice  it  at 
home,  reading  it,  first,  very  slowly,  then,  as  fast  as  you  can.  In 
class  read  it  once  each  way.   Which  is  more  effective  ? 

2.  On  a  subject  about  which  you  know  a  great  deal,  prepare  a 
short  talk ;  give  it  in  class,  speaking  as  rapidly  as  possible.  This 
exercise  is  to  cultivate  the  power  of  rapid  thinking  and  talking. 

3.  Prepare  and  give  in  class  another  talk,  speaking  very  slowly. 

4.  Prepare  to  read  a  selection  in  class,  giving  the  opening  and 
closing  sentences  slowly,  and  the  other  sentences  as  rapidly  as  you 
think  the  audience  can  follow.  In  the  reading,  make  pauses  where 
necessary  to  show  the  sense. 


DIFFERENCE  IN  STRESS  169 

Loudness  of  Tone.  Theoretically,  no  words  in  a  sentence 
are  spoken  with  exactly  the  same  stress.  Practically,  we  use 
perhaps  three  degrees  of  loudness.  In  the  preceding  sen- 
tence the  words  'practically,'  'three,'  and  'degrees'  have 
chief  stress  ;  '  use,'  '  perhaps,'  and  '  loudness  '  have  only  mod- 
erate stress  ;  while  '  we  '  and  '  of  '  have  the  least.  We  must 
be  careful  not  to  emphasize  unimportant  words.  Debaters 
sometimes  wrongly  emphasize  such  words  as  '  resolved,' 
'  and,'  and  '  should.' 

Above  the  level  of  being  heard  by  all,  there  is  a  wide 
range  of  stress  from  which  to  choose.  Important  statements 
may  be  given  with  full  strength  ;  difficult  analysis  may  need 
a  serious,  quiet  presentation.  Words  which  would  be  printed 
in  italics  can  be  made  to  stand  out  in  speaking.  Words 
may  be  put  into  parenthesis  by  dropping  the  voice  and  by 
pauses  before  and  after  the  parenthesis. 

Making  Everybody  Hear.  The  worst  of  all  faults  in  pub- 
lic speaking  is  failure  to  make  every  listener  hear,  and  hear 
comfortably.  No  other  combination  of  virtues  and  graces 
will  make  up  for  this  fault.  Failure  to  be  heard  is  in  rare 
instances  due  to  circumstances  which  cannot  be  controlled, 
but  oftener  it  is  due  to  lack  of  consideration  or  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  speaker ;  he  does  not  put  himself  in  the 
hearer's  place.  If  a  speaker  talks  too  loudly  or  too  softly 
he  is  not  thinking  of  his  audience.  A  good  plan  is  to 
select  some  person  in  the  rear  of  the  hall,  and  see  that 
he  hears.  Sometimes  even  the  most  experienced  public 
speakers  talk  only  to  a  portion  of  the  house  near  the  front, 
utterly  ignoring  the  others.  Sympathetic  regard  for  others 
is  the  best  cure  for  this  difficulty.  Do  not  allow  yourself 
the  excuse  that  yon  cannot  make  yourself  heard,    lliere  is 


I/O  GOOD  USE  OF  THE  VOICE 

hardly  a  girl  who  cannot  learn  to  make  an  audience  of 
fifteen  hundred  people  hear  her.  It  is  all  a  matter  of  the 
right  use  of  the  voice,  together  with  a  belief  that  you  can. 
Never  allow  the  last  few  words  of  a  speech  to  be  lost ; 
make  the  finish  a  strong  one. 

EXERCISES 

1.  a.  What  words  should  receive  the  strongest,  the  medium, 
and  the  weakest  stress  in  the  following  sentences  ? 

1.  Aren't  you  ready  to  do  your  duty? 

2.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

3.  Ignorance  of  the  law  is  no  excuse. 

4.  Jesus  said,  "  Father,  forgive  them ;  for  they  know  not  what 
they  do." 

5.  There  is  no  possible  reason  why  we  should  n't  succeed. 

h.  Compose  or  select  five  other  sentences,  and  read  them  in 
class.  Exaggerate  the  stresses  slightly,  so  that  the  differences  will 
be  evident. 

2.  Read  a  short  selection  of  poetry,  bringing  out  clearly  the 
appropriate  differences  in  stress.  Careful  practice  will  be  neces- 
sary. (Try  to  apply,  also,  what  you  have  learned  about  variations 
in  the  speed  of  reading.)  Selections  from  Shakespeare's  "Julius 
Caesar,"  Act  III,  are  suggested,  particularly  Antony's  speech  in 
Scene  i,  beginning,  "  O,  pardon  me,  thou  bleeding  piece  of  earth," 
and  those  in  Scene  ii,  beginning,  '^  If  you  have  tears,  prepare  to 
shed  them  now,"  and  "  Good  friends,  sweet  friends,  let  me  not 
stir  you  up." 

3.  Prepare  a  prose  reading  to  give  in  class.  Study  it  thoroughly, 
noting  the  sentences  which  should  be  read  more  loudly  than  others. 
Pay  attention  also  to  differences  of  stress  within  each  sentence, 
and  to  differences  in  the  rate  of  reading.  Practice  faithfully,  and 
read  the  selection  in  class. 


VARIETY  OF  PITCH  171 

4.  Prepare  a  speech  to  give  in  class,  preferably  a  brief  argu- 
ment on  a  business  proposition.  Practice  it  repeatedly,  making  it 
show  striking  and  appropriate  differences  in  loudness.  There  is 
no  objection  to  a  little  exaggeration.  Remember  to  make  the 
conclusion  strong. 

5.  Prepare  an  announcement.  If  possible,  the  class  should  meet 
in  a  room  which  will  seat  200  people,  then  in  one  seating  1000  or 
1500,  and  again  in  the  open  air.  Let  the  members  of  the  class 
station  themselves  at  some  distance  from  the  platform  and  in 
various  directions  from  the  speaker.  Make  the  announcement  so 
clearly  that  no  word  can  possibly  be  "missed.  Perhaps  you  may  be 
able  to  practice  with  a  friend  beforehand.  After  your  speech  ask 
how  many  missed  even  a  word  of  the  announcement. 

This  exercise  should  be  repeated  until  satisfactory  results  are 
obtained.  At  each  trial  the  speaker  should  look  over  the  place  and 
the  audience  before  he  speaks,  deciding  how  to  adjust  his  voice  to 
fiU  the  space. 

The  Pitch  of  the  Voice.  A  third  element  of  variety  in 
the  use  of  the  voice  is  that  of  pitch.  Though  no  one  can 
be  expected  to  use  in  speaking  the  range  of  tone  that  a 
singer  uses  in  singing,  yet  the  instrument  employed  in 
both  cases  is  the  same.  If  the  sentence,  "You  are  a  hero," 
be  spoken,  one  could  determine  with  a  delicate  musical  in- 
strument the  pitch  of  each  sound.  Every  sound  one  makes 
has  its  place  in  the  musical  scale.  Since  the  voice  has  a 
wide  range  of  tone,  just  as  any  other  musical  instrument 
has,  why  should  not  every  person  learn  to  use  a  greater 
range  in  his  speaking?  Some  speeches  are  tiresome  be- 
cause all  the  tones  are  between  two  notes  of  the  scale.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  lawyer  pleading  for  a  life  will  use  a  full 
octave  of  tones,  low  tones  for  solemn  warning  and  pleading, 
and  high  tones  for  questioning  and  denouncing. 


1/2  GOOD  USE  OF  THE  VOICE 

Learning  to  use  a  Greater  Range  of  Tone.  How  may  the 
beginner  learn  to  use  a  greater  range  of  tone  in  his  speak- 
ing ?  Let  him  choose  a  sentence,  perhaps  one  expressing 
excitement,  and  practice  varying  the  pitch  of  the  different 
syllables.  In  this  way  he  will  find  out  which  are  his  best 
tones  for  ordinary  speaking.  There  are  many  persons  whose 
speaking  would  be  greatly  improved  by  lowering  the  ordi- 
nary voice  a  tone  or  two.  Again,  the  student  who  practices 
faithfully  will  develop  the  power  to  use  high  and  low  tones 
when  either  are  needed  in  his  speaking.  Repeated  trials 
will  show  how  far  up  or  down  the  scale  he  can  safely  go 
in  expressing  various  shades  of  meaning. 

Change  of  pitch  is  used  also  to  help  mark  parentheses, 
new  paragraphs,  quotations,  and  different  speakers  in  dia- 
logue. We  use  the  sudden  high  pitch  at  the  end  of  a 
question  expecting  a  '  yes '  or  a  '  no '  answer.  A  common 
error  is  the  use  of  this  up  stroke  at  the  end  of  declarative 
sentences  or  even  at  the  end  of  a  speech.  Hesitation  or 
lack  of  confidence  is  usually  at  the  bottom  of  this  fault.  If 
one  has  this  habit,  he  should  learn  the  down  stroke  of  the 
voice  by  cultivating  a  positive  and  emphatic  style  of  talking. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Poetry  approaches  singing,  and  difference  in  pitch  is  obvious. 
Practice  a  selection,  and  rfead  it  in  class,  using  as  great  a  range  of 
voice  as  possible.  Thus,  you,  may  get  an  insight  into  the  wonder- 
ful power  of  the  voice.  The  selections  mentioned  in  the  previous 
exercises  would  be  acceptable ;  also  the  following  from  the  same 
play:  Act  III,  scene  ii,  Antony's  speeches  beginning,  "Friends, 
Romans,  countrymen,"  and  "  But  yesterday  the  word  of  Cassar"  ; 
and  those  of  Cassius,  Act  I,  scene  ii,  beginning,  "  I  know  that 


FORCEFUL  SPEAKING  173 

virtue  to  be  in  you,  Brutus,"  and  "  Why,  man,  he  doth  bestride 
the  narrow  world." 

2.  a.  Practice  the  following  sentences,  speaking  them  with  the 
voice  pitched  as  high  as  is  natural  to  you.  Try  each  sentence 
in  a  low  voice  also,  and  then  in  what  you  think  should  be  its 
correct  pitch. 

1.  Aren't  you  coming.? 

2.  How  dare  you  say  so  ? 

3.  It  is  impossible  to  do  what  you  ask. 

4.  We  shall  be  there  as  soon  as  you  will. 

5.  I  will  not  have  anything  to  do  with  your  schemes. 

6.  We  will  not  submit. 

7.  How  can  a  man  be  unkind  to  his  mother.? 

8.  This  is  a  sad  and  solemn  occasion. 

9.  This  cave  is  as  dark  as  night. 
10.  How  dare  you  speak  to  me.? 

b.  Prepare  five  other  sentences  to  read  in  class,  using  the 
higher  pitch. 

c.  Prepare  five  other  sentences  to  read  in  class,  using  the 
lower  tones. 

3.  Select  an  ordinary  piece  of  prose,  such  as  a  paragraph  from 
a  periodical,  and  practice  reading  it  with  as  great  a  range  of  tone 
as  possible.  Study  it  thoroughly  to  determine  what  words  and  sen- 
tences need  the  higher  tones,  and  what  the  lower.  Read  the  selec- 
tion in  class.    Pay  attention  to  differences  in  speed  and  in  loudness. 

4.  Prepare  a  talk  upon  a  subject  of  your  own  choosing.  Make 
a  special  effort  to  pitch  the  voice  slightly  lower  than  you  usually 
do.  At  the  same  time  use  a  variety  of  different  tones.  Oive  the 
speech  in  class. 

Enthusiasm  and  Force.  It  is  of  little  use  to  speak  at 
all  unless  it  can  be  done  with  .some  vigor.  It  is  desirable 
to  speak  with  ease,  to  talk  distinctly,  and  to  have  variety 
of  speed,  stress,  and  pitch.     But  the  proper  combination  of 


174  GOOD  USE  OF  THE  VOICE 

these  good  qualities  should  lead  to  forceful  use  of  the  voice. 
Just  how  and  when  to  be  in  earnest  with  the  voice  is  a 
matter  for  judgment  and  good  taste  to  determine.  The 
student  must  learn  that  sometimes  he  is  most  forceful  when 
talking  slowly,  that  there  are  times  when  subdued  tones  are 
more  forceful  than  loud  ones,  and  that  frequently  notes 
in  a  low  pitch  express  more  force  than  high-pitched  ones. 
Adapt  the  emphasis  to  the  subject,  to  the  thought  being 
expressed,  and  to  the  time,  place,  and  particular  audience 
addressed. 

Be  careful  that  enthusiasm  is  not  overdone ;  that  you 
do  not  make  an  exhibition  of  force  run  to  waste.  Over- 
emphasis is  bad  because  the  audience  will  pay  attention  to 
your  manner  of  speaking  and  little  to  what  you  say,  and 
because  they  may  suspect  you  of  insincerity.  Never  give 
the  impression  of  spending  yourself  to  the  utmost ;  always 
have  a  reserve  of  force. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Study  a  piece  of  literature  expressing  serious,  quiet  thoughts  ; 
such,  for  example,  as  Lincoln's  "  Speech  at  Gettysburg,"  Wash- 
ington's "  Farewell  Address,"  Portia's  speech  on  mercy  in  "  The 
Merchant  of  Venice,"  the  Twenty-third  Psalm.  Try  to  get  into 
the  spirit  of  the  thoughts  of  the  author.  Then  practice  the  selec- 
tion, putting  into  the  reading  all  the  quiet  earnestness  which  will 
make  it  effective.    Read  it  before  the  class. 

2.  Find  a  selection  which  may  be  appropriately  rendered  with 
vigorous  emotion,  such  as  an  extract  from  Patrick  Henry,  Wendell 
Phillips,  or  William  Lloyd  Garrison.  Practice  the  selection,  and 
read  it  in  class  with  great  enthusiasm. 

3.  Select  a  partner  for  a  conversation.  Choose  for  argument 
a  question  upon  which  you  disagree.   Hold  the  conversation  before 


FORCEFUL  SPEAKING  175 

the  class.   Speak  with  great  enthusiasm,  but  with  the  quiet  manner 
appropriate  to  a  friendly  conversation. 

4.  Prepare  an  argument  upon  an  interesting,  stirring  subject. 
Practice  it  carefully,  paying  attention  to  posture,  gesture,  and 
good  management  of  the  voice.  Deliver  the  speech  in  class  with 
as  much  vigorous  force  as  is  appropriate. 

5.  For  the  purpose  of  exercise  in  emphatic  gesturing,  facial 
expression,  and  voice,  arrange  an  extempore  play  with  some  ex- 
citing conversation  in  it.  It  may  be  an  attempt  to  collect  rent,  with 
an  eviction  following.  Such  a  scene  might  have  four  characters: 
landlord,  tenant,  lawyer,  and  policeman.  Put  all  the  force  possible 
into  the  play. 

6.  Prepare  a  talk  requiring  a  quiet,  earnest  manner,  such  as 
the  principal  of  the  school  would  assume  in  telling  the  students 
about  the  value  of  thinking  about  their  life-careers.  Give  the  talk 
in  class. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

Occasions  requiring  talks  to  fit  particular  needs  frequentty 
arise  in  student  life,  as,  for  example,  when  a  member  of  the 
graduating  class,  in  a  speech  at  assembly,  presents  to  the 
school  a  picture  or  other  gift.  Furthermore,  announce- 
ments are  often  to  be  made,  nominations  for  school  offices 
are  common  in  many  schools,  and  in  some  schools  student 
officers  preside  at  auditorium  calls  and  introduce  speakers. 
This  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  needs  aris- 
ing out  of  such  occasions.  It  may  be  that  years  will  pass 
before  the  student  will  be  asked  to  give  a  toast  or  an  oration 
in  real  life ;  nevertheless,  the  practice  in  such  talks  is  of 
such  value  that  all  the  talks  outlined  below  should  be  tried. 
If  the  real  occasions  do  not  arise  in  school  life,  possible 
situations  may  be  dramatized  by  the  members  of  the  class. 

I.    THE  ANNOUNCEMENT 

When  a  person  appears  before  an  audience  to  give  a 
notice  or  to  speak  of  a  coming  event,  he  is  making  an 
announcement.  Since  announcements  are  frequently  given 
in  school  as  well  as  in  public  meetings,  we  shall  here  study 
how  they  may  be  made  most  effectively. 

Preparation  for  the  Announcement.  The  first  require- 
ment is  that  the  speaker  should  thoroughly  understand 
what   he   is   going  to  announce.     Nothing  essential   must 

176 


THE  ANNOUNCEMENT  177 

be  allowed  to  escape  him.  Thus,  if  the  event  is  a  game  or 
an  entertainment,  the  following  items  must  be  included : 
the  occasion  and  the  purpose  of  the  event,  the  participants, 
the  date,  the  hour,  the  place,  the  terms  of  admission.  If 
any  other  information  might  be  needed  by  the  audience, 
as,  for  example,  how  a  place  is  to  be  reached,  or  how  the 
money  received  is  to  be  used,  the  announcement  must 
include  these  items  also. 

Next,  a  WTitten  outline  should  be  prepared,  so  that  the 
details  will  be  presented  in  the.  best  order.  The  speaker 
must  first  arouse  the  interest  of  the  audience,  and  therefore 
he  must  select  for  his  first  item  one  of  great  interest.  Thus, 
in  announcing  the  laying  of  a  corner  stone,  one  might  begin, 
""This  city  is  at  last  to  have  a  new  high-school  building." 
Other  details  may  follow  in  the  order  which  the  speaker 
thinks  will  serve  best  to  hold  the  interest  of  the  audience, 
and  to  impress  upon  it  the  leading  points. 

Notes  to  use  while  speaking  must  next  be  prepared.  It 
is  not  safe  to  trust  to  the  memory  in  the  case  of  a  compli- 
cated announcement,  for  it  is  fatal  to  success  to  misstate 
the  time,  the  date,  or  the  place.  It  may  not  be  necessary 
to  include  all  the  items  in  the  notes  used  before  the  au- 
dience, but  dates  and  other  figures  should  invariably  be 
set  down. 

The  Speech.  In  presenting  the  announcement,  accuracy 
of  information  and  distinctness  of  speech  arc  of  first  im- 
portance. In  the  case  of  a  printed  notice,  if  the  reader 
overlooks  or  forgets  any  detail,  he  can  turn  back  to  it  later. 
But  since  with  the  oral  announcement  there  is  no  oppor- 
tunity to  do  this,  the  speaker  must  see  that  nothing  essen- 
tial is  neglected.     To  this  end  he  sliould  repeat  important 


178  SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

facts  at  a  suitable  opportunity,  perhaps  by  a  summarizing 
sentence  at  the  close  of  the  talk.  He  must  also  emphasize 
the  important  points.  To  show  emphasis  printed  notices 
frequently  make  use  of  several  different  kinds  of  type,  but 
the  speaker  must  accomplish  the  same  result  by  the  voice. 
The  following  announcement  may  serve  as  an  illustration : 

The  second  annual  junior  exposition^  for  the  exhibition  of  the 
products  and  interests  of  the  children  of  this  city,  will  be  held  on  next 
Friday  afternooft  and  evening.  Last  year's  success  is  to  be  repeated 
on  a  larger  and  more  comprehensive  scale.  The  section  devoted  to 
children's  pets  has  been  greatly  enlarged,  and  sections  for  kites  and 
for  home  decoration  have  been  added. 

The  exposition  is  to  be  held  in  Conventiott  Hall,  on  Williamson 
Street,  and  will  be  open  from  three  to  ten  p.m.  The  admission  to 
everyone  is  ten  cetifs. 

Reinember :  Friday  next;  Convent io7i  Hallj  three  to  ten  P.M.j 
the  jim  ior  exposition . 

EXERCISES 

1.  Prepare   and    deliver    an    announcement    for    one    of    the 

following  events : 

1.  A  football  game.  6.  An  election. 

2.  An  exhibit  of  farm  products.        7.  A  business  meeting. 

3.  An  entertainment.  8.  A  candy  sale. 

4.  A  concert.  9.  A  band  concert. 

5.  An  excursion.  10.  A  mass  meeting. 

2.  Announce  one  of  the  following  as  an  approaching  event, 
and  give  directions  for  those  who  wish  to  sign,  buy  tickets,  enter, 
or  take  part : 

1.  A  debate.  6.  A  new  club. 

2.  A  petition  to  the  faculty.  7.  A  school  play. 

3.  A  track  meet.  8.  A  subscription  or  collection. 

4.  A  tennis  tournament.  9.  A  try-out  for  the  orchestra, 

5.  An  initiative  petition.  10.  A  picnic. 


THE  NOMINATING  SPEECH  1 79 

II.  THE   NOMINATING   SPEECH 

Most  of  the  world's  work  is  done  by  means  of  organized 
endeavor,  and  the  officers  in  the  organizations  have  usually 
been  chosen  by  nomination  and  election.  It  is  therefore 
important  that  anybody  who  is  to  take  an  active  part  in 
life  should  know  how  to  make  a  good  nomination  speech. 

The  public  naming  or  recommending  of  some  person  to 
fill  an  office  is-  called  a  nomination.  If  such  an  indorse- 
ment is  to  accomplish  its  object, .it  must  be  both  intelligent 
and  enthusiastic. 

The  Outline.  For  the  speech  of  nomination  the  speaker 
must  use  some  such  outline  as  this  : 

OUTLINE   FOR  A  NOMINATION   SPEECH 

1.  The  requirements  of  the  ofifice.    (If  not  already  stated.) 

2.  The  name  of  the  candidate. 

3.  The  candidate's  qualifications  for  the  office. 

4.  What  he  may  be  expected  to  do  if  elected. 

5.  The  appeal  for  votes. 

Although  an  outline  should  be  prepared  and  carefully 
mastered,  notes  should  not  be  used  during  the  speech, 
however  long  or  complicated  it  may  be.  Written  notes 
would  give  the  impression  that  the  speaker  was  not  suffi- 
ciently acquainted  with  the  qualifications  of  the  person 
nominated. 

Announcing  the  Name.  Should  the  name  of  the  candi- 
date be  announced  at  the  beginning,  in  the  middle,  or  at 
the  end  of  the  speech.?  There  are  reasons  for  each  posi- 
tion. A  common  place  is  at  the  close ;  we  have  all  heard 
a  speech  end,   "Therefore   it  gives   me  great  pleasure  to 


l8o         SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

nominate  Mr.  Blank."  There  are  good  reasons,  however, 
for  giving  the  name  of  the  candidate  at  least  as  early  as 
the  middle  of  the  speech.  Suppose  the  speaker  withholds 
the  name  during  the  first  part  of  the  speech,  but  tells  the 
audience  that  one  of  the  candidate's  qualifications  is  prac- 
tical business  experience.  At  once  many  in  the  audience 
begin  to  guess  who  the  candidate  is,  and  may  be  so  dis- 
tracted that  they  fail  to  hqar  some  of  the  important  details. 
If  the  name  comes  early  in  the  speech,  the  hearers  are  able 
to  follow  each  point  intelligently,  and  to  test  the  accuracy 
of  the  statements  by  their  own  knowledge. 

From  a  parliamentary  standpoint,  when  the  name  is  given 
it  should  be  addressed  to  the  chairman  of  the  meeting,  so 
that  the  secretary  will  record  it.  Thus,  at  whatever  point 
in  the  speech  the  speaker  desires,  he  may  turn  to  the  chair- 
man and  say,  "  Mr.  Chairman,  I  nominate  Mr.  Blank  for 
the  office  of  president." 

Appeal  for  Votes.  The  other  topics  of  the  outline  above 
should  need  no  explanation,  except  perhaps  the  last.  The 
appeal  for  votes  should  be  based  on  the  evidence  presented 
under  the  other  topics  ;  for  example  : 

We  see  that  this  office  is  a  responsible  one,  and  it  is  therefore 
our  duty  to  vote  for  the  best  candidate.  The  young  man  that  I 
have  nominated  has  the  necessar}'  ability,  and  I  have  shown  you 
what  we  may  expect  him  to  do  for  the  club,  if  he  is  elected.  I 
am  sure  he  is  the  best  person  for  the  office,  and  I  hope  you  will 
vote  for  him. 

The  appeal  should  not  be  too  long,  for  to  bore  one's 
hearers  means  failure.  Neither  should  the  appeal  be  based 
on  minor  considerations  ;  for  example,  that  because  William 
is  popular,   or  jolly,   or   an  athlete,   he   should  be   elected 


THE  NOMINATING  SPEECH  i8i 

treasurer  of  the  club.  The  opponents  are  hkely  to  seize 
upon  these  statements  and  to  claim  that  such  arguments 
show  how  hard  it  is  to  find  good  reasons  for  recommend- 
ing the  candidate.  In  any  case,  the  candidate's  principles 
are  far  more  important  than  his  personal  qualities. 

It  should  not  be  necessar)'  to  remind  anybody  that  par- 
liamentary rules  prevent  adverse  comments  about  candidates. 

Originality.  Nomination  speeches  must  be  attractive. 
Therefore  avoid  tiresome,  worn-out  expressions.  There  are 
many  good  ways  of  saying,  "It  gives  me  great  pleasure." 

Humor  has  no  place  in  a  nominating  speech  unless  it 
applies  to  the  argument.  The  joke  that  is  told  "just  for 
fun  "  or  "to  get  the  ear  of  the  audience  "  merely  clouds  the 
real  issue.    Such  methods  do  not  deceive  intelligent  voters. 

Win  votes  by  nominating  the  right  candidate,  by  giving 
clear  reasons  for  his  election,  by  sincere  enthusiasm,  and 
by  making  the  appeal  for  the  good  of  the  society. 

EXERCISE 

Prepare  a  nomination  speech,  choosing  from  the  list  below  or 
selecting  your  own  subject.   For  duties  of  officers,  see  Chap.  XIV. 

1.  Baseball  captain.  11.  Treasurer  of  a  union. 

2.  Track  manager.  12.  Librarian  of  an  orchestra. 

3.  Treasurer  of  the  school.  13.  (irand  marshal  of  a  parade. 

4.  Yell  leader.  14.  Master  of  ceremonies  at  a 

5.  Manager  of  the  lunch  room.  celebration. 

6.  Secretary  of  a  literary  club.  15.  Chairman  of  a  convention. 

7.  President  of  a  social  club.  16.  Chairman  of  a  mass  meeting. 

8.  President  of   a  business  or-  17.  Manager  of  your  city. 

ganization.  18.   Mayor  of  your  city. 

9.  Sergeant  at  arms.  19.   Governor  of  your  state. 

10.  Secretary  of  a  chamber  of      20.   President    of     the     United 
commerce.  States. 


1 82  SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

III.    THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  A  SPEAKER 

In  public  meetings  the  necessity  of  introducing  a  speaker 
to  the  audience  is  very  common,  and  we  shall  find  it  worth 
while  to  learn  how  to  do  it. 

The  Outline.  To  make  a  speech  of  introduction  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  definite  plan  in  mind.  First,  perhaps, 
the  occasion  and  its  meaning  may  be  noted  ;  and  next,  the 
name  of  the  guest,  and  for  what  he  is  known.  Then  may 
be  mentioned  the  speaker's  subject  ;  and  finally  should 
come  an  expression  of  the  pleasure  of  the  audience  in  the 
opportunity  of  listening  to  their  guest.  Then  the  chairman 
may  turn  to  the  speaker,  who  steps  forward,  and  formally 
introduce  him  to  the  audience :  "  Ladies  and  gentlemen, 
Mr.  Blank." 

Announcing  the  Name.  The  chairman  must  be  careful 
in  announcing  the  name.  Not  one  person  in  the  audience 
should  be  allowed  to  miss  it.  The  speaker  will  respond, 
"Mr.  Chairman,"  either  as  he  rises  or  as  he  reaches  the 
front  of  the  platform.  The  person  presiding  remains 
standing  for  this  response,  and  bows  in  reply.  Then  he 
takes  his  seat  on  the  platform,  or  perhaps  with  the  audi- 
ence, if  the  meeting  is  in  a  small  room. 

Naturalness.  The  chairman  must  not  embarrass  the 
speaker  by  flattery,  or  by  a  flourish  of  oratory.  The 
introduction  should  be  brief.  Let  the  chairman  remember 
that  the  audience  did  not  come  to  hear  him. 

No  notes  should  be  used  in  an  introduction  speech. 

Thanking  the  Speaker.  Usually  the  speaker  should  be 
thanked  when  he  has  finished.  If  there  is  prolonged 
applause,  the  chairman  should  not  come  to  the  front  until 


INTRODUCTION  OF  A  SPEAKER  183 

it  begins  to  subside.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  rise  as  the 
speaker  returns  to  his  seat,  perhaps  shaking  hands  with 
him  and  bowing  him  to  his  seat.  The  chairman  may  stand 
a  moment  at  his  seat,  and  then  come  forward  to  express, 
on  behalf  of  the  audience,  the  pleasure  which  the  speaker 
has  given  them.  He  will  be  talking  in  two  directions, 
and  should  look  from  the  audience  to  the  speaker. 

EXERCISE 

The  best  practice  in  giving  introductions  will  be  gained  if  each 
member  of  the  class  will  choose  a  partner.  Suppose,  for  example, 
that  some  member  of  the  class  is  to  give  an  explanation  on  a  sub- 
ject in  electricit}^  Let  him  play  the  part  of  an  expert  from  another 
city.  As  his  partner,  you  may  consult  him  beforehand  to  find  out 
his  name,  position,  honors,  etc.,  and  to  get  his  exact  subject.  Then 
introduce  him  to  the  class,  and  thank  him  after  his  speech  is 
finished.  Make  the  occasion  as  nearly  like  a  real  situation  as 
possible.    The  following  introductions  are  suggested  : 

1.  A  returned  soldier.  11.  A  labor-union  leader, 

2.  An  expert  in  agriculture.  12.  A  manufacturer. 

3.  A  noted  traveler.  13.  An  army  officer. 

4.  An  agent  for  plows.  14.  An  inventor. 

5.  A  candidate  for  office.  15.  A  noted  chemist. 

6.  A  celebrated  athlete.  16.  A  noted  architect. 

7.  A  hero.  17.  A  statesman. 

8.  A  mayor  from  another  city.  18.  A  foreign  diplomat. 

9.  A  visiting  teacher.  19.  A  king. 

10.  A  clergyman.  20.  An  explorer. 

In  case  the  person  introduced  is  presented  for  the  pur- 
pose of  honoring  him  rather  than  for  the  purpose  of  having 
him  give  a  set  speech,  the  situation  is  similar  to  that  in 
which  a  gift  is  presented.     This  we  shall  consider  next. 


1 84         SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

IV.    THE   PRESENTATION  AND  RESPONSE 

Many  situations  arise  in  which  it  is  necessary  for  some 
one  to  make  a  presentation  speech,  and  for  the  recipient 
to  respond.  No  kind  of  speech  requires  -greater  poise, 
and  there  is  none  in  which  awkwardness  is  more  noticeable. 
Faithful  practice  will  help  to  make  one  at  ease  in  such 
situations,  if  this  is  reenforced  with  the  sincerity  and  kind- 
liness which  should  go  with  the  gift  and  the  giving. 

The  Presentation.  The  outline  for  the  speech  is  simple. 
It  may  include  four  topics:  (i)  the  good  qualities  of  the 
person  honored ;  (2)  the  reason  for  presenting  the  gift ; 
(3)  the  good  wishes  of  the  givers ;  and  (4)  the  words 
of  presentation.  The  recipient  will  be  standing  with  the 
speaker  in  the  case  of  the  presentation  of  an  emblem  or 
a  medal,  since  such  an  occasion  involves  no  surprise.  But 
when  the  person  who  is  to  receive  the  gift  has  not 
been  informed  of  the  event,  he  will  probably  be  seated  in 
the  audience. 

Tr)^  to  avoid  causing  the  recipient  embarrassment.  You 
may,  of  course,  take  him  by  surprise,  but  put  him  as  much 
at  ease  as  possible.  Talk  directly  to  him,  as  naturally  as 
you  can,  and  hint  at  what  is  to  follow.  Do  not  overdo  the 
compliments.  Allow  time  for  him  to  collect  his  thoughts 
before  vou  finish. 

The  Response.  In  accepting  a  gift  or  an  honor  pre- 
sented in  public,  make  your  speech  sincere  and  short.  By 
no  means  refer  to  your  own  qualities  or  to  past  accom- 
plishments, even  indirectly  by  means  of  an  apolog}'  or  by 
a  show  of  humilit}\  Such  remarks  spoil  the  gladness  of 
the  giving,  because  they  cannot  be  sincere. 


PRESENTATION  AND  RESPONSE  185 

An  outline  like  the  one  following  may  be  used,  in  such 
cases  as  when  a  gavel  is  to  be  presented  to  a  retiring 
president  of  an  organization  :  (i)  sincerely  thank  the  givers; 
(2)  tell  how  deeply  the  honor  is  appreciated  ;  (3)  thank  the 
members  for  their  cooperation  and  friendship ;  (4)  ask  their 
support  for  the  new  officers  ;  (5)  say  that  the  gift  will 
always  call  to  your  mind  your  loyal  friends  and  your  help- 
ful experiences  in  the  society. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Below  is  a  list  of  gifts,  some  of  them  with  suggested  recipi- 
ents. Select  one  of  these  and  prepare  a  speech  of  presentation, 
first  requesting  somebody  to  stand  with  you  and  accept  the  gift, 
either  for  himself  or  on  behalf  of  an  organization,  as  the  case 
may  be. 

1.  A  medal  to  an  athlete.  6.  A  flagstaff  to  the  school. 

2.  A  school  emblem  to  a  debater.  7.  A  tree  to  a  city  park. 

3.  A  gavel  to  a  retiring  officer.  8.  Diplomas  to  a  class. 

4.  A  prize  to  the  winner  of  a  9.  A  picture  to  a  club. 

contest.  10.  A  piano  to  a  society. 

5.  A  scholarship. 

2.  Select  a  gift  to  present  to  some  person  in  the  class  who 
does  not  know  of  the  honor  until  your  talk  begins.    Let  it  be 
•understood  that  the  recipient  is  to  respond.    The  following  are 
suggested : 

1.  A  clock.  6.  A  sewing  machine. 

2.  A  fountain  pen.  7.  A  set  of  dishes. 

3.  A  watch.  8.  A  pet  dog. 

4.  A  pocketknife.  9.  A  sum  of  money. 

5.  A  book.  10.  A  deed  to  a  house  and  lot 


1 86         SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

V.    THE  TOAST  OR  AFTER-DINNER  SPEECH 

The  Occasion  and  Purpose.  A  toast  is  a  dinner  speech 
designed  to  honor  or  express  appreciation  of  an  organiza- 
tion, individual,  or  sentiment.  The  dinner  and  the  program 
which  follows  are  arranged  by  a  committee,  who  choose  the 
toastmaster,  the  speakers,  and  the  subjects.  Thus  if  a  com- 
pany of  former  Panama  Canal  workers  should  hold  a  ban- 
quet, there  might  well  be  toasts  on  these  subjects  :  The 
Republic  of  Panama ;  The  Chief  Engineer ;  The  P^ific 
Coast ;  The  Suez  Canal ;  Sanitation  ;  Uncle  Sam. 

Toasts  are  usually  a  mixture  of  serious  and  witty  thoughts. 
Some  of  the  topics  are  assigned  by  the  committee  with  the 
idea  of  humorous  treatment  throughout,  while  others  neces- 
sarily require  a  serious  style.  A  toast  which  is  wholly  seri- 
ous, however,  is  rare.  Every  speaker  must  present  his 
subject  attractively,  and  it  is  probably  for  this  reason  that 
appropriate,  bright  sayings  and  funny  stories  are  introduced. 

Plan.  No  fixed  outline  for  a  toast  can  very  well  be  sug- 
gested here.  If  a  story  or  a  humorous  incident  is  to  be 
used  to  begin  the  toast,  it  should  be  one  that  clearly  applies 
to  the  subject.  The  hearers  may  gradually  be  led  from  the 
lighter  thoughts  to  the  serious  consideration  of  the  subject. 
If  the  speech  is  a  eulogy  of  a  person,  the  treatment  must 
be  candid,  sincere,  and  unaffected.  The  ending  may  be 
a  summary,  or  possibly  a  happy  look  into  the  future. 
Originally  the  speech  ended  with  a  cup  held  aloft  and  some 
such  words  as,  "I  pledge  you,  friends,  our  country,  the 
fairest,"  etc.,  that  is,  a  well-worded  descriptive  sentence  or 
a  quotation  of  poetry.  The  banqueters  then  drank  the  toast. 
The  actual  drinking  is  now  often  omitted. 


THE  TOAST  187 

There  is  no  need  to  memorize  a  toast ;  a  little  practice 
with  an  outline,  either  alone  or  before  a  helpful  critic,  will 
be  preparation  enough.  A  small  card  at  the  place,  with  a 
few  words  to  aid  the  memory,  will  not  be  objectionable. 
A  memorized  wording  will  almost  always  spoil  the  pleasure 
of  the  hearers. 

The  Toastmaster.  The  person  chosen  toastmaster  of  the 
banquet  has  an  entirely  different  task  to  perform.  The 
president  of  the  society,  or  the  chairman  of  the  committee 
of  arrangements,  will  turn  the  program  over  to  him  and  he 
becomes  master  of  ceremonies  ;  that  is,  he  gives  an  opening 
talk  about  the  occasion  and  its  meaning,  which  is  somewhat 
like  a  toast  itself,  and  also  introduces  each  of  the  speakers 
and  announces  his  subject. 

The  good  toastmaster  has  a  fund  of  apt  stories.  He  leads 
from  one  toast  to  another  by  appropriate  comments  on  the 
subject  just  finished,  and  by  remarks  or  a  story  introducing 
the  next.  The  more  closely  the  remarks  apply  to  the 
speaker  or  the  subject  the  better. 

The  Guest  of  Honor.  If  the  banquet  is  in  honor  of  a 
person,  he  should  be  the  last  speaker.  Let  us  suppose  that 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce  is  banqueting  the  Secretary  of 
State.  The  guest  may  be  introduced  by  the  toastmaster, 
though  often  the  preceding  speaker,  who  may  be  the  presi- 
dent of  the  society  or  the  mayor  of  the  city,  is  asked  to  do 
it.  The  Secretary's  speech  is  of  his  own  choosing.  He  may 
express  appreciation  for  the  good  words  and  the  honors, 
happiness  in  the  occasion,  and  good  wishes  for  the  organi- 
zation. He  may  then  talk  about  the  affairs  of  the  country,' 
or  the  policies  of  the  administration,  or  our  trade  with  other 
countries,  or  on  any  other  topic  of  general  interest. 


i88 


SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 


Suggestions  for  Practice.  The  occasion  may  be  a  simple 
banquet  of  the  class,  or  a  dinner  of  "notables"  in  which 
each  student  takes  the  part  of  some  personage.  The  follow- 
ing are  suggestions :  Chamber  of  Commerce  ;  Republican 
Central  Committee ;  Society  for  Prevention  of  Cruelty 
to  Animals  ;  Civic  League  ;  Improvement  Club  ;  Athletic 
Club ;  Football  Team  ;  the  workers  of  a  store  ;  the  heads 
of  departments  of  a  business  house ;  the  annual  banquet  of 
any  other  of  the  innumerable  societies  which  help  to  carry 
on  the  world's  work  and  play.  For  other  examples,  see  the 
suggested  events  on  page  191. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  arrangements  with  other  members  of  the  class,  and 
jointly  prepare  a  program  of  toasts.  Use  the  sample  programs 
below  as  suggestions.  If  cooperation  seems  impracticable,  let 
each  student  choose  one  topic  and  prepare  an  appropriate  speech. 


I.  A  School  Banquet 


II.  A  Civic  Organization 


1.  Student  activities. 

1.  Our  schools. 

2.  After  school,  what.? 

2.  The  ladies. 

3.  The  fun  we  have. 

3.  The  churches. 

4.  The  faculty. 

4.   Our  neighbors. 

5.   Music. 

5.   Prosperity. 

6.  The  taxpayer's  standpoint. 

6.  The  look  ahead. 

III.  A  Merchants' 

Asso- 

IV.  A  Political  Organi- 

CIATION 

zation 

1.  The  advertiser. 

1.  The  glorious  past. 

2.  The  salesman. 

2.  The  classes  and  the  masses, 

3.  The  show  window. 

3.   Graft. 

4.  The  public. 

4.  Hard  times. 

5.  The  future. 

5.   Progress. 

THE  ORATION  189 

2.  Arrange  with  tlie  required  number  of  your  classmates  for  a 

program  similar  to  the  following,  and  let  each  prepare  to  give  one 
of  the  toasts : 

I.  A  Dinner  to  a  Professor  11.  A  Banquet  to  a  Labor 

OF  Agriculture  Leader 

1.  Welcome  to  our  guest.  1.  The  movement. 

2.  The  old-fashioned  farmer.  2.  What  we  are  trying  to  do  in 

3.  The  price  of  hogs.  this  city. 

4.  Modern  methods.  3.  The  ballot. 

5.  Politics.  4.  The  larger  patriotism. 

6.  Introduction  of  the  guest.  5.   Our  guest. 

7.  Address :  Scientific  farming.  6.  Address  :  The  outlook. 


'&• 


VI.  THE  ORATION 

The  Real  Use  of  the  Oration.  Graduation  speeches  are 
often  called  orations,  although  they  are  usually  nothing 
more  than  explanations  or  arguments,  or  simple  combina- 
tions of  the  two.  The  typical  speech  of  the  so-called  ora- 
torical contest  also  is  not  a  real  oration,  at  least  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  term.  It  is  usually  a  series  of  argu- 
ments or  an  explanation  of  events,  with  perhaps  an  appeal 
at  the  end.  Often  these  speeches  are  given  in  an  artificial, 
strained  style  which  may  do  a  young  speaker  harm  ;  they 
are  a  bad  mixture  of  dramatics  and  debating.  The  student 
would  do  better  to  confine  his  attention  either  to  dramatics 
or  to  debating,  and  not  to  mix  the  two. 

Strictly  speaking,  an  oration  is  the  chief  speech  of  the 
program  of  exercises  held  to  celebrate  an  important  event, 
such  as  the  founding  of  a  college  or  the  birthday  of  a 
statesman.  When  the  exercises  are  planned,  some  person 
conspicuous  for  good  citizenship  and  for  his  experience  and 
ability  in  speaking  is  selected  as  tlie  chief  orator. 


I90         SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

Although  the  student  may  not  be  called  upon  to  deliver 
an  oration  until  many  years  after  his  graduation,  the  train- 
ing involved  in  planning,  studying,  and  delivering  a  simple 
oration  will  prove  of  value  to  him  now.  No  other  kind  of 
speech  offers  so  good  an  opportunity  for  effective  speaking, 
except  perhaps  the  debate.  Its  use  is  so  restricted,  however, 
that  we  shall  consider  it  only  briefly. 

Preparation.  Material  for  the  oration  may  be  obtained 
only  by  a  thorough  study  of  the  subject,  which  may  include 
research  into  both  history  and  biography.  The  scope  of  the 
speech  must  be  indicated  by  the  topics  of  the  outline.  The 
following  is  a  typical  plan  : 

OUTLINE   FOR  AN    ORATION 
Celebration  of  Independence  Day 

1.  Introduction:  The  reason  for  to-day's  celebration. 

2.  History :  The  events  leading  up  to  the  Declaration  of 
Independence. 

3.  Eulogy :  Praise  of  the  men  concerned  in  that  event. 

4.  Explanation :  The  historical  importance  of  America's  free- 
dom ;  and  the  probable  effect  on  the  future. 

5.  Conclusion :  An  appeal  to  the  audience  to  aid  in  carrying 
forward  the  ideals  of  the  nation. 

In  the  oration  greatest  emphasis  should  be  put  on  such 
topics  as  the  third  and  the  fourth  in  the  outline  above. 
The  first  two  should  be  restricted  to  a  brief  treatment. 

The  outline  should  be  memorized,  for  the  orator  usually 
should  hold  no  notes.  The  old-time  orations  were  often 
written  out  and  memorized,  but  the  modern  way  seems  to 
be  to  avoid  learning  the  actual  words.  The  movements  and 
the  manner  of  an  orator  should  be  deliberate  and  dignified. 


OTHER  TALKS 


191 


EXERCISE 

Prepare  an  oration.  Choose  any  subject  you  wish ;  the  topics 
below  may  suggest  an  acceptable  occasion.  Arrange  to  have 
somebody  act  as  chairman  and  introduce  you.  (Perhaps  a  whole 
program  may  be  arranged  and  carried  out,  including  vocal  and 
instrumental  music,  reading,  the  introduction,  and  the  oration.) 


1.  Independence  Day. 

2.  Labor  Day. 

3.  Birthday  of  Washington  or 

Lincoln. 

4.  Thanksgiving. 

5.  Columbus  Day. 

6.  Memorial  Day. 

7.  Christmas. 

8.  Fifdeth    anniversary  of  the 

opening    of    the    Panama 
Canal. 

9.  Opening  of  a  park  or  play- 

ground. 

10.  Completion  of  a  harbor. 

11.  Laying  the  corner  stone  of  a 

museum. 

12.  Launching  an  ocean  liner. 

13.  Opening  a  canal. 

14.  Opening  an  irrigating  system. 

15.  Signing  a  treaty. 

16.  Establishment  of  world  peace. 


17. 


The  invention  of  printing  or 
of  the  telephone. 

The  discovery  of  electricity 
or  of  aviation. 

The  anniversary  of  the  found- 
ing of  Boston. 

The  state  of  Illinois. 

Dedication  of  a  library. 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers. 

The  discovery  of  the  north 
pole. 

The  Knickerbockers. 

The  pioneers  of  California. 

Unveiling  a  monument. 

Unveiling  a  fountain. 

Signing  an  old-age  pension 
bill. 

29.  Breaking  ground  for  an  ex- 

position. 

30.  Breaking  ground  for  a  na- 

tional university. 


18. 

19. 

20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 

24. 
25. 
26. 

27. 
28. 


VII.  OTHER  TALKS 

The  Commemoration  or  Celebration  or  Dedication  Speech 
will  usually  be  an  oration,  as  indicated  in  the  exercises  above. 

The  Eulogy  is  a  speech  in  praise  of  some  individual.  It 
is  like  an  oration,  though  the  outline  must  be  somewhat 
changed — perhaps  as  follows  :  the  occasion  ;  what  the  man 


192         SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

has  done ;  his  value  to  his  fellows  ;  the  influence  he  will 
exert  on  the  future ;  the  appeal.  The  praise  should  not  be 
exaggerated. 

The  Farewell  Speech,  addressed  to  one  who  is  leaving, 
may  touch  upon  the  occasion,  the  appreciation  of  friends  for 
the  person  and  his  accomplishments,  and  the  good  wishes 
for  the  future.  The  response  to  such  a  speech  resembles 
a  valedictory  (see  below). 

The  Speech  of  Gratitude  is  similar  to  the  speech  of 
acceptance  (see  page  184). 

The  Inauguration  Speech,  or  Speech  of  Installation,  is 
made  when  one  assumes  an  office.  It  resembles  the  speech 
of  acceptance,  but  includes,  in  addition,  an  appreciation  of 
the  good  efforts  of  the  retiring  officers  and  a  statement  of 
the  policies  and  plans  of  the  new  administration. 

The  Invitation  Speech  expresses  good  fellowship  or 
mutual  interest ;  it  states  accurately  the  event  to  which  the 
invitation  is  given,  tells  how  the  invitation  may  be  accepted, 
and  expresses  cordial  hope  that  the  response  will  be 
favorable. 

The  Rally  Speech  purposes  to  arouse  enthusiasm  for  a 
good  cause  or  a  coming  contest,  and  must  express  optimism. 
In  form  it  may  follow  the  outline  of  the  oration,  especially 
emphasizing  the  importance  of  the  cause  and  the  appeal 
for  support.   It  must  be  spontaneous  and  informal. 

The  Valedictory  is  a  speech  of  farewell  by  a  person  who 
is  taking  leave  of  some  place,  organization,  or  the  like.  It 
is  made  use  of  chiefly  by  a  representative  of  a  graduat- 
ing class  of  a  school.  It  may  include  words  of  apprecia- 
tion for  friendships,  regret  at  parting,  and  good  wishes  for 
the  future. 


OTHER  TALKS 


193 


The  Speech  of  Welcome  is  in  honor  of  visitors  or  return- 
ing friends.  If  a  visiting  committee  of  citizens  from  an- 
other city  is  welcomed  in  our  city  hall  by  the  mayor,  the 
speech  might  include  these  topics  :  the  occasion,  our  regard 
for  the  visitors  and  their  city,  the  plans  for  the  visit,  pleasure 
in  the  welcoming,  hope  for  the  success  of  the  visit.  The 
response  to  such  a  speech  is  like  an  acceptance.  It  may 
express  thanks  for  the  greeting,  pleasure  in  having  come, 
anticipation  of  good  fellowship,  and  the  friendship  between 

the  two  cities. 

EXERCISE 

Prepare  and  deliver  a  speech  on  one  of  the  subjects  in  each 
group  given  below.  When  possible,  cooperate  with  other  students 
who  will  give  introductions  or  responses. 


I.  Eulogy 

1.  Washington. 

2.  Lincoln. 

3.  Lee. 

4.  Longfellow. 

5.  Gladstone. 

6.  John  Harvard. 

7.  Henry  Clay. 

IL    Farewell 


IV. 


14.  President  of  a  college. 

15.  Mayor. 

16.  Governor. 

17.  President. 

Invitation 

18.  To  a  celebration. 

19.  To  a  banquet. 

20.  To  a  school  or  college. 


III. 


8.  To  a  teacher. 

V.  Rally  Speech 

9.  To  a  friend  about  to  leave. 

21. 

A  game. 

10.  To  an  explorer. 

22. 

A  debate. 

Inauguration 

23. 
24. 

Interest  in  athletics. 
Interest  in  debating. 

11.  President  of  the  student 

25. 

Interest   in   the    school 

body. 

paper. 

12.   President  of  tlic  debating 

26. 

Interest  in  the  orchestra. 

club. 

27. 

Contributions  to  charity. 

13.  Athletic  manager. 

28. 

A  political  campaign. 

194 


SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 


VI.   Valedictory 

29.  Leaving  school. 

30.  Leaving  a  social  club. 

31.  Graduating  from  college. 

32.  Leaving  a  business  firm. 

VII.    Welcome 

33.  A  visiting  teachier. 

34.  A  new  principal. 


35.  A  peace  delegate  from  a 

foreign  country. 

36.  A  mayor. 

37.  A  labor  convention. 

38.  A  convention  of  scientists. 

39.  A  committee  of  investiga- 

tors. 

40.  A  committee  of  business 

men. 


CHAPTER  XII 

ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

We  have  now  discussed  in  detail  the  most  important 
kinds  of  talks.  There  are  still  to  be  considered,  however, 
some  special  talks  and  exercises,  which,  for  convenience, 
we  have  grouped  together  in  this  chapter :  Reading ;  Cur- 
rent Topics ;  The  Discussion ;  Impromptu  Talks ;  Humorous 
Stories  and  Jokes  ;  Interviews  ;  Conversations  ;  Extempore 
Plays.  Several  of  these  are  closely  related  to  those  already 
studied,  but  we  shall  here  briefly  concentrate  our  attention 
on  each  of  these  special  topics. 

I.   READING 

Whether  the  subject  matter  be  an  exciting  bit  of  news, 
an  interesting  description,  a  serious  speech,  a  poem,  or  an 
essay,  the  power  of  multiplying  thought  in  the  printed  page 
by  means  of  the  spoken  word  is  a  fascinating  process. 

What  to  read  in  Class.  To  get  the  best  results  we  must 
make  a  careful  selection  of  the  material  to  be  read.  If  all 
the  selections  brought  to  class  were  interesting  and  new 
to  the  hearers,  there  would  be  little  difficulty  in  learning 
to  read  successfully.  There  is  not  much  incentive  to  a 
student  to  read  well  when  he  knows  that  few  of  the  others 
care  about  hearing  him. 

In  our  consideration  of  reading,  therefore,  we  shall  not 
discuss   drill   in  expression,  repeated   reading,  or   dramatic 

195 


196         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

reading ;  these  may  be  reserved  for  special  classes.  We 
shall  assume  at  the  outset  that  each  student  makes  his  own 
selections  and  that  every  item  read  in  class  will,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  attract  and  hold  the  listeners.  Selec- 
tions should  be  made  with  this  end  in  view,  and  books, 
magazines,  and  papers  should  be  searched  for  appropriate 
reading  material.  Incidents,  current  events,  and  other  short 
articles  will  usually  be  most  interesting.  Occasionally  a 
piece  of  business  English,  such  as  a  circular  or  an  adver- 
tisement, will  be  useful.  When  a  long  selection  is  chosen, 
it  should  be  divided  among  several  readers. 

Preparation.  The  selection  given  below,  clipped  from 
the  magazine  section  of  a  newspaper,  is  the  kind  fre- 
quently used  in  class. 

A  ROCK-SALT   RAILWAY   STATION 

Writing  of  the  wonderful  Wieliczka  salt  mines  near  Cracow  in 
Austrian  Poland  the  Alanchester  (England)  Guardian  gives  an  inter- 
esting description  of  a  railway  station  in  the  mine.  There  are  65  miles 
of  pony  tramways,  says  the  Guardian,  and  22  miles  of  railway.  All  these 
lines  and  the  principal  passages  or  "  streets  "  meet  in  a  sort  of  central 
cavern.  Here  is  a  central  railway  station,  with  spacious  waiting  rooms, 
offices,  and  an  excellent  refreshment  room  all  complete,  all  hewn  out 
of  rock  salt,  and  looking,  according  to  one  description,  "  more  like  a 
summer  pavilion  than  a  railway  station,  with  its  latticed  galleries  and 
stately  pillars  gleaming  white  and  iridescent."  This  is  comparatively 
modern,  of  course.  The  oldest  "  building  "  in  the  mine  is  the  chapel 
of  St.  Anthony,  dating  from  1691.  It  contains  three  altars,  a  pulpit, 
and  much  statuary,  all  elaborately  carved  out  of  rock  salt.  But  services 
are  now  held  only  in  the  more  modern  but  equally  elaborate  chapel  of 
St.  Cunigund,  which  is  entered  down  46  salt  steps.  The  ballroom  is  a 
huge  room,  where  miners'  festivals  are  often  held.  A  miners'  orchestra 
plays  regularly  in  this  hall  not  only  for  the  dances,  but  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  visitors,  for  the  mine  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world 
and  is  much  visited  by  tourists. 


READING  197 

In  preparing  to  read  such  an  article,  we  need  first  to 
make  the  thought  our  own.  Repeated  reading,  with  what- 
ever study  is  necessary,  will  give  us  the  sense  of  the 
article.  The  dictionary  should  be  used  for  meanings  and 
pronunciations.  Failure  to  make  proper  preparation  may 
lead  to  awkwardness  and  to  the  recital  of  mere  words.  The 
class  may  well  protest  if  its  time  is  wasted  by  such  reading. 
Oral  practice  is  the  best  preparation,  and  we  shall  discuss 
below  some  principles  to  be  observed  in  this  practice. 

Reading  at  Sight.  Sometimes,  however,  we  may  find  it 
necessary  to  read  an  article  without  any  preparation.  Since 
it  is  important  for  us  to  have  practice  in  such  an  exercise, 
we  shall  make  our  directions  apply  to  both  kinds  of  reading, 
but  we  may  here  consider  a  word  or  two  of  warning  for  the 
sight-reading  exercise.  Do  the  best  you  can,  and  then  do 
not  worry  if  your  reading  is  imperfect.  If  you  are  asked 
to  read  an  article  similar  to  that  given  above,  you  should 
make  a  sincere  attempt  to  pronounce  the  difficult  names 
without  hesitation  and  without  asking  anybody  else.  Do 
not  spell  words  to  your  hearers  or  to  the  teacher.  A  guess 
at  the  pronunciation  is  better  than  that,  unless  a  possible 
mispronunciation  would  destroy  the  sense  of  the  article. 

The  Beginning.  When  about  to  read  a  prepared  article, 
do  not  make  a  long  statement  before  you  begin.  If  the 
selection  is  complete,  it  will  usually  have  its  own  introduc- 
tion. At  most,  if  some  remark  seems  necessary,  tell  the 
source  of  the  article  and  its  general  purpose.  For  example, 
a  selection  without  a  definite  title  might  be  prefaced  by 
such  a  remark  as,  "  This  is  the  description  of  an  English 
school  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century.  It  is  from 
Dickens's  '  Nicholas  Nickleby.'  " 


198         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

Announcing  the  Subject.  Be  exceedingly  careful  to  make 
the  subject  perfectly  clear  to  your  hearers.  Many  times  it 
happens  that  because  the  speaker  himself  is  familiar  with 
the  printed  subject,  he  assumes  that  it  will  be  sufficient  for 
him  to  talk  in  his  usual  tone  of  voice.  He  forgets  that  the 
thoughts  of  his  hearers  may  be  far  from  his  topic,  and 
must  be  brought  to  it  definitely.  For  example,  unless  you 
announce  the  topic,  ""A  Rock-Salt  Railway  Station,"  slowly 
and  distinctly,  probably  nine  out  of  ten  of  your  listeners 
will  imagine  that  the  word  before  '  railway '  is  the  name  of 
a  place.  It  is  good  practice  to  select  a  newspaper  item, 
with  its  brief,  condensed  headlines,  and  to  read  these  topics 
so  carefully  that  nobody  can  miss  them.  The  title  is  printed 
large  ;  make  it  sound  large.  It  is  separated  from  the  body 
of  the  article ;  separate  it  in  the  reading  by  means  of  a 
definite  pause  after  the  title.  This  pause  is  essential  for  a 
clear  beginning. 

The  First  Words.  The  opening  words  of  the  selection 
itself  must  also  be  read  slowly  and  very  distinctly.  The 
reason  for  this  is  the  psychological  fact  that  it  takes  time 
for  the  minds  of  the  hearers  to  put  aside  present  thoughts 
and  fall  into  the  spirit  of  the  new  ideas.  As  you  go  to 
the  front,  for  example,  some  of  your  classmates  may  expect 
from  you  an  article  on  the  temperance  cause.  They  hear, 
however,  something  about  Mars,  and  at  once  think  of 
classic  myths  and  ancient  Greece  and  Rome.  Instead  of 
that,  they  begin  to  hear  of  millions  of  miles  and  of  canals, 
and  finally  realize  that  you  are  trying  to  tell  them  about 
the  great  planet.  Because  of  the  danger  of  being  mis- 
understood at  first,  every  word  must  be  made  to  reach  the 
thought  of  the  hearer. 


READING  199 

Some  Fundamentals.  It  is  fundamental  to  success  to 
learn  to  give  more  attention  to  the  listeners  than  to  the 
paper.  Hold  the  book  or  paper  fairly  high.  This  will  help 
you  to  look  up  without  having  to  raise  your  head  ;  more- 
over, it  will  give  a  full  view  of  your  face  and  better  direc- 
tion to  your  voice.  Develop  the  ability  to  look  ahead  and 
grasp  the  sense  of  words  yet  to  be  spoken. 

In  the  body  of  the  article  where  the  thought  is  well 
connected  the  reading  may  proceed  much  faster  than  at  the 
beginning  or  at  the  end.  The  Jast  few  sentences  should 
be  given  slowly,  but  the  reading  must  not  be  allowed  to 
diminish  in  force.    Make  the  finish  a  strong  one. 

EXERCISES 

1.  There  is  hardly  a  limit  to  the  variety  of  topics  possible  for 
reading.  Any  of  those  suggested  below  will  be  interesting  if  care 
in  the  selection  is  used.  Choose  a  short  article,  make  the  proper 
preparation,  and  read  the  selection  to  the  class.  Be  on  the  alert 
to  hold  the  attention  of  every  person  present. 

1.  Political  news.  8.  Newspaper  interviews. 

2.  Business  news.  9.  Scientific  articles. 

3.  Doings    of    Congress,    state      10.  School  news. 

legislature,  or  city  council.  11.  Editorials. 

4.  Foreign  events.  12.  Business  circulars. 

5.  Notes  on  plays.  13.  Selections  from  textbooks. 

6.  City  affairs.  14.   Political  circulars. 

7.  News    of    clubs,    lodges,    or  15.  A  poem. 

societies. 

2.  Make  a  selection  which  requires  exact  reading,  one  that  does 
not  proceed  smoothly  from  beginning  to  end.  An  article  containing 
figures  would  be  best.  Make  the  appropriate  preparation,  arid  read 
the  selection  in  class.    The  following  are  suggested  : 


200        ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  A  daily  weather  report.  6.  A  bill. 

2.  A  business  letter   containing        7.  A  cooking  receipt. 

an  order.  8.  A  stock-exchange  report. 

3.  News  of  ships  and  shipping.  9.  A  notice  of  a  meeting. 

4.  A  market  report.  10.  A  treasurer's  report. 

5.  A  table  of  current  prices. 

3.  Select  an  advertisement,  preferably  a  large  display  adver- 
tisement with  few  details,  but  one  using  several  different  kinds 
of  type.  Study  it  for  the  purpose  of  determining  just  how  the 
emphasis  shall  be  placed.  Practice  for  proper  emphasis,  and  for 
clearness  throughout.    Read  it  in  class. 

4.  Select  a  short  poem  to  be  read  in  class.  Be  sure  of  the 
meaning  of  every  phrase.  Practice  faithfully.  Remember  that 
you  do  not  need  to  force  rhythm :  if  you  read  naturally  to  bring 
out  the  sense,  the  rhythm  will  take  care  of  itself.  Try  to  make  a 
definite  gain  in  your  ability  to  read  poetry. 

5.  a.  Select  such  an  article  as  has  been  suggested  in  the 
first  exercise  of  this  group.  Bring  it  to  class,  cutting  it  from  the 
periodical  if  convenient,  so  that  it  may  be  easily  handled.  Let 
one  of  the  pupils  collect  all  the  selections,  and  place  them  face 
downward  on  the  desk  or  table.  As  your  turn  comes,  choose 
one  of  the  articles  and  read  it,  doing  the  best  you  can  at  sight. 
(If  you  draw  your  own  piece,  return  it  and  draw  again.) 

h.  Carry  out  the  same  exercise  for  such  a  selection  as  is  sug- 
gested in  Exercise  2  above. 

c.  Carry  out  the  exercise  with  an  advertisement. 

d.  Carry  out  the  exercise  with  a  poem. 

6.  Let  the  teacher  select  a  story  of  some  length  to  be  read 
in  class,  at  sight.  Here  every  student  is  a  link  in  a  chain,  and 
the  whole  chain  —  the  story  — ■  breaks  if  one  student  fails  to 
read  successfully.  Begin  at  the  first  new  paragraph  on  the 
page  shown  you,  and  read  to  the  beginning  of  a  new  para- 
graph on  the  next  page. 


CURRENT  TOPICS  20I 

II.    CURRENT  TOPICS 

Conversations  are  full  of  discussions  on  current  topics, 
and  our  thoughts  deal  largely  with  them  because  they  have 
a  vital  relation  to  the  things  we  are  doing.  To  acquire  the 
ability  to  talk  intelligently  and  interestingly  on  the  happen- 
ings of  the  day,  we  must  learn  to  read  accurately  and 
broadly,  to  listen  attentively,  and,  above  all,  to  practice 
faithfully  by  ourselves  and  to  talk  with  our  friends. 

The  Choice  of  Topics.  In  selecting  current  topics  to 
present  as  Oral  English  recitations,  avoid  subjects  so  tech- 
nical that  your  listeners  cannot  readily  understand  them, 
and  also  those  so  simple  or  obvious  that  your  audience  will 
be  bored.  This  does  not  mean  that  common  subjects  must 
be  shunned  if  you  have  something  fresh  and  interesting  to 
say  on  them.  Select  topics  which  are  concerned  with  the 
world's  progress.  Do  not  waste  the  time  of  the  class  with 
the  recital  of  events  which  never  should  have  happened, 
unless  you  have  a  cure  to  propose. 

Preparation.  Make  yourself  thoroughly  familiar  with  your 
topic  by  reading  and  conversation.  In  this  study,  as  in  the 
case  of  other  recitations  in  Oral  English,  the  student  might 
well  use  for  his  preparation  the  time  so  often  wasted  in 
idle  thinking  or  careless  talking  —  on  the  street  car,  or 
when  eating,  dressing,  walking,  etc. 

In  order  to  give  the  talk  well,  its  outline  must  be  planned 
in  advance.  This  plan  should  include  a  sentence  of  intro- 
duction and  one  of  conclusion.  The  introduction  should 
aim  to  arouse  interest  in  the  subject,  and  the  conclusion 
may  touch  upon  the  significance,  the  effect,  or  the  probable 
outcome  of  the  event.    Thus,  a  talk  about  Belgium  might 


202         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

begin  as  follows  :  "  Americans  are  intensely  interested  in 
watching  the  attempts  of  the  Belgians  to  restore  normal  con- 
ditions in  their  country.  Yesterday  I  read  an  article,"  etc. 
Then  would  follow  the  gist  of  the  topic.  Be  careful  to  in- 
clude every  necessary  detail,  such  as  time,  place,  and  names 
of  persons.  Perhaps  a  picture  or  a  map  would  help  the 
talk.  The  conclusion  might  be  worded  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows :  "This  article  indicates  that  the  Belgian  people  are 
making  valiant  efforts  to  hold  together,  and  that  within  the 
near  future-  great  changes  for  the  better  may  be  expected." 

In  the  preparation,  unless  the  subject  follows  a  simple 
and  obvious  order  of  topics,  the  outline  should  be  written 
out  in  detail.  Such  a  written  outline  may  not  be  needed 
when  the  talk  is  given,  but  it  should  be  used  in  preparation. 

After  each  talk  has  been  given,  other  members  of  the 
class  may  want  to  ask  questions  or  tell  something  further 
about  the  topic.  Such  informal  discussion  will  be  con- 
sidered in  the  next  section. 

EXERCISE 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  give  a  current  topic  —  an  item  of 
present  interest  to  the  members  of  the  class.  Perhaps  you  had 
better  come  prepared  on  several  topics,  so  that  if  somebody 
speaks  on  one  of  them  you  can  use  another.  If,  however,  you 
find  it  necessary  to  speak  on  a  topic  already  given,  try  to  add 
something  new  to  what  has  been  said.  Make  the  topic  vital  and 
the  treatment  attractive.  The  fields  of  interest  suggested  below, 
and  those  given  in  the  exercises  on  reading,  above,  may  be  searched 
for  good  subjects.  Newspapers  and  magazines  will  be  found  rich  in 
good  topics,  but  your  own  experiences  and  observations  will  often 
be  the  best  source. 


THE  DISCUSSION      •-.•      '  203 

1.  Science.  6.  New  books.,' 

2.  Invention.  7.  National  and  international  affairs. 

3.  Politics.  8.   School  happenings. 

4.  Labor  questions.  9.   Celebrations  and  conventions. 

5.  Business  changes.  10.  Recreations. 


III.    THE  DISCUSSION 

We  are  constantly  discussing  topics  of  interest.  Every 
group  of  children  talking  on  the  street,  in  the  halls,  or  on 
the  playground  is  having  a  discussion.  In  order  to  give 
directions  here  for  all  such  discussions  we  should  have  to 
consider  many  of  the  things  already  treated  and  some  that 
will  appear  in  later  sections.  We  shall  therefore  limit  our 
present  treatment  to  informal  discussions  which  arise  in 
the  course  of  a  recitation  in  the  Oral  English  class,  and  to 
formal  discussions  which  are  planned  in  advance  for  the 
express  purpose  of  considering  all  sides  of  a  question. 

The  Informal  Discussion.  Whenever  an  interesting  talk 
has  been  given  in  class,  there  should  be  an  opportunity  for 
questions,  remarks,  and  the  giving  of  additional  information, 
unless  lack  of  time  makes  such  discussion  impracticable. 
In  this  discussion  every  member  should  have  complete 
freedom  to  speak,  but  should  limit  himself  to  the  subject 
and  be  brief. 

What  shall  decide,  or  who  shall  decide,  when  each  person 
who  desires  to  speak  shall  have  the  privilege  ?  Of  course, 
if  the  teacher  is  in  charge  of  the  class,  anybody  who  wishes 
to  take  part  in  the  discussion  will  apply  for  permission  in 
the  usual  manner.  But  if  the  class  has  a  chairman,  then 
the   requests  for  the  privilege  of  the  floor  may  be   made 


204        ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

by  the  method  used  in  hterary  or  business  meetings.  In 
the  early  part  of  Chapter  XIV  is  outhned  a  simple  plan 
for  the  organization  of  an  Oral  English  class  into  a  parlia- 
mentary society.  Such  an  organization  is  of  great  advantage 
in  conducting  a  discussion.  Even  if  it  seems  impracticable 
to  carry  out  that  plan,  however,  one  of  the  students  may  be 
elected  or  appointed  chairman  of  the  meeting,  and  may  sit 
at  the  front  for  the  purpose  of  recognizing  those  who  rise 
to  ask  permission  to  speak.  A  person  so  chosen  should 
give  the  privilege  of  speaking  according  to  the  rules  set 
forth  on  page  322.  If  the  class  has  a  time  limit  for  each 
talk  or  discussion,  the  chairman  should  enforce  that  rule. 

The  Formal  Discussion.  Sometimes  a  set  speech  or  a 
whole  meeting  for  the  consideration  of  a  question  is  called 
a  discussion.  Suppose  the  superintendent  of  schools  dis- 
cusses the  question  of  a  junior  high  school  for  the  city. 
Or  suppose  a  meeting  is  held  for  the  discussion  of  the 
question  of  a  new  high-school  building.  In  either  case  the 
use  of  the  word  '  discussion  '  means  that  both  sides  of 
the  question  are  to  be  presented.  Thus  the  superintendent 
would  summarize  all  the  facts  and  arguments.  The  meet- 
ing would  listen  to  persons  holding  varying  opinions.  The 
difference  between  a  discussion  and  a  debate  is  that  the 
debate  is  still  more  formal,  with  prearranged  sides  and  with 
a  decision  of  a  committee  of  judges  afterward. 

How  the  Discussion  is  Conducted.  A  meeting  for  a  dis- 
cussion may  be  conducted  according  to  a  definite  plan. 
Thus,  some  literary  societies  use  a  plan  which  would  be  an 
excellent  one  for  a  class  in  Oral  English  to  follow.  The 
teacher,  or  a  committee  of  students,  or  the  vote  of  the  class 
may  choose  a  subject  to  be  discussed  at  a  future  meeting. 


THE  DISCUSSION  205 

The  subject  should  be  one  about  which  there  is  a  differ- 
ence of  opinion,  and  its  treatment  by  the  class  will  be 
largely  argumentative.  The  principles  we  have  studied  in 
Chapter  II  will  therefore  apply  to  the  discussion.  The 
subject  selected  may  be  stated  in  the  form  of  a  topic,  a 
resolution,  or  a  question. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  appoint  one  member  to  open  the 
discussion  with  a  talk  of  from  five  to  ten  minutes  in  length, 
depending  on  the  total  time  for  the  meeting.  Several  short 
talks  may  then  follow,  the  speakers  being  appointed  in 
advance  or  volunteering  and  being  recognized  by  the  chair- 
man. These  should  each  be  limited  to  from  two  to  five 
minutes.  Finally,  the  person  who  opened  the  discussion 
should  be  allowed  to  close  it  with  a  talk  of  from  four  to 
six  minutes. 

The  Opening  Talk.  The  opening  speech,  if  one  has 
been  planned,  should  be  a  general  survey  of  the  subject. 
It  should  first  state  the  problem  to  be  solved,  or  the  ques- 
tion to  be  setded,  and  should  then  touch  upon  the  various 
solutions  proposed.  If  there  are  two"  or  more  clearly  defined 
opinions,  every  side  should  be  presented  carefully  and  fairly. 
Finally,  the  speaker's  own  conclusions  may  be  presented, 
with  his  reasons.  For  example,  suppose  the  question  of  a 
building  for  the  high  school  is  under  discussion,  and  the 
superintendent  of  schools  has  the  opening  talk.  He  first 
presents  the  problem,  perhaps  the  overcrowding  of  the 
school.  He  next  discusses  the  solutions  proposed  :  putting 
the  ninth  gi'ade  into  a  junior  higli  school  ;  changing  the 
time  program  of  the  high  school  so  that  some  pupils  will 
come  early  in  the  day  and  others  late ;  getting  along  with 
conditions  as   they  are  ;    and  building  a  new  building.     In 


2o6         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

discussing  these  proposals  he  should  give  them  the  best 
statement  he  can.  Finally,  he  should  make  a  strong,  brief 
argument  in  favor  of  the  plan  he  believes  best,  showing 
how  each  of  the  others  is  an  inadequate  solution  compared 
with  the  true  one,  the  construction  of  the  new  building. 

The  other  talks  would  of  course  present  other  opinions, 
and  the  final  speech  by  the  leader  of  the  discussion  would 
answer  the  other  arguments  and  make  a  summary. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Let  each  student  select  a  current  topic  to  present  in  class. 
After  each  person  gives  his  talk,  let  the  teacher  or  a  student 
chairman  conduct  a  discussion  on  the  subject. 

2.  Six  or  seven  students  should  be  selected  to  conduct  a  formal 
discussion  during  a  recitation  period.  One  should  be  asked  to  give 
the  opening  talk,  and  the  others  to  present  other  opinions.  The 
subject  selected  should  be  one  about  which  the  members  of  the 
group  differ.  A  list  of  subjects  is  given  below ;  others  are  given 
in  Appendix  II. 

1.  What  is  the  cure  for  war.? 

2.  Is  municipal  ownership  a  good  thing? 

3.  Sliould  we  indorse  the  general  principle  of  labor  unions  ? 

4.  How  can  poverty  be  prevented.'' 

5.  Would  the  junior  high  school  be  a  success? 

6.  How  may  athletics  be  improved  ? 

7.  Does  the  Monroe  Doctrine  help  this  nation  ? 

8.  Should  capital  punishment  be  abolished  ? 

9.  Have  modern  inventions  made  people  happier? 
10.  Is  student  self-government  a  good  idea? 


IMPROMPTU  TALKS  207 

IV.    IMPROMPTU  TALKS 

Extempore  and  Impromptu  Speaking.  Suppose  that  in 
preparing  his  lesson  in  the  exercise  above,  a  student 
selects  the  question  of  the  cure  for  war,  studies  his  subject, 
outlines  it,  and  practices  it  faithfully  but  without  memorizing 
it  word  for  word,  and  then  gives  the  speech  in  class.  He  is 
making  an  extempore  speech.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  ex- 
presses himself  on  the  question  of  the  cure,  without  opportun- 
ity for  preparation,  his  speech  is  impromptu.  For  the  purposes 
of  this  book,  then,  the  impromptu  speech  will  be  taken  to 
mean  that  for  which  there  has  been  no  definite  preparation. 

Practically  all  the  directions  in  this  book  are  for  extem- 
pore speeches,  yet  some  excellent  practice  in  quick  thinking 
and  ready  talking  may  be  obtained  in  impromptu  work. 

Thinking  Rapidly.  In  impromptu  speaking  the  student 
will  be  assigned  a  topic  upon  which  perhaps  he  has  never 
talked  with  anybody,  and  will  be  called  on  without  time  for 
study.  When  placed  in  this  situation  the  speaker  must  do 
his  best.  He  must  not  apologize  or  talk  about  himself.  He 
should  be  decisive,  clear,  and  explicit  in  stating  what  he 
docs  know  and  does  believe  about  the  subject.  No  harm 
will  come  from  tr^'ing.  Unless  he  tries  to  say  too  much 
there  is  little  danger  that  he  will  be  led  into  insincerity, 
conceit,  or  false  opinion. 

The  speaker  should  start  making  the  outline  before  he 
says  a  word ;  at  least  he  ought  to  decide  what  will  be  his 
first  and  his  second  topic.  Then  as  he  begins  speaking  he 
should  think  ahead  to  the  other  topics,  and  before  he  nears 
the  end  he  should  plan  a  strong  conclusion.  Practice  will 
show  that  it  is  possible  to  do  this  successfully. 


2o8         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 

Topics  can  hardly  be  listed  here,  for  they  would  provoke 
thought  and  preparation,  and  this  would  make  the  talks  extempore 
instead  of  impromptu.  The  topics  following,  therefore,  are  rather 
to  suggest  the  kind  of  work  that  may  be  undertaken.  How  may 
the  topics  be  selected  ?  An  excellent  way  is  to  have  a  committee 
or  the  teacher  select  a  number  of  subjects,  writing  each  upon  a 
slip  of  paper.  Each  student,  as  he  is  called  upon,  draws  a  topic  and 
makes  his  speech.  Topics  may  be  selected  from  the  exercises 
of  Chapter  II,  and  from  the  debate  questions  and  the  lists  in 
Appendix  II.  Better  still,  they  may  be  chosen  from  the  daily 
experiences  and  problems  of  the  students  and  of  the  world.  The 
following  have  been  used  : 

1.  Are  white  lies  ever  justifiable.'' 

2.  Should  churches  adopt  entertainment  features  ? 

3.  Do  you  think  that  the  United  States  will  ever  have  complete 
prohibition  ? 

4.  What  kind  of  tree  is  best  for  streets  ? 

5.  When  should  men  take  their  hats  off  in  an  elevator? 

6.  Have  you  any  objection  to  eating  cold-storage  eggs  ? 

7.  What  is  the  cure  for  the  large  number  of  automobile  accidents.'' 

8.  Do  you  approve  of  fashionable  weddings .'' 

9.  How  can  insanity  in  the  United  States  be  lessened? 

10.  If  you  had  the  necessary  time  and  money,  what  trips  would 
you  take? 

11.  How  can  schoolrooms  be  made  more  attractive? 

12.  Should  a  father  watch  a  son  to  prevent  his  smoking? 

13.  Should  "  strap-hangers  "'  pay  less  fare? 

14.  In  what  ways  can  a  person  learn  to  save  time? 

15.  Is  coeducation  beneficial  to  the  student  ? 

16.  Why  do  people  wear  hats  ? 

17.  W^ill  Mexico  ever  be  a  real  republic? 

18.  Do  you  think  the  scientists  will  ever  learn  to  control  the  weather? 

19.  Would  Southern  California  be  more  prosperous  if  it  raised  alfalfa 
instead  of  oranges  ? 


HUMOROUS  STORIES  AND  JOKES  209 

20.  Should  a  person  who  is  going  into  business  have  a  college 
education  ? 

21.  Will  there  always  be  a  great  number  of  poorly  educated  people 
to  do  the  manual  labor  of  the  world .'' 

22.  Will  electricity  ever  replace  steam  ? 

23.  Tell  the  uses  of  petroleum. 

24.  Tell  something  about  the  natural  resources  of  Russia. 

25.  Tell  the  advantages  of  the  occupation  of  farming. 

V.    HUMOROUS  STORIES  AND  JOKES 

Any  person  can  become  a  reasonably  good  story-teller. 
All  that  is  required  is  a  little  courage  ;  practice  will  do  the 
rest.  It  is  true  that  some  persons  need  more  practice  than 
others,  and  many  good  story-tellers  have  become  successful 
only  after  arduous  practice.  Here,  as  in  the  other  exercises 
in  oral  work,  the  student  is  to  be  judged  not  so  much  by  the 
talent  he  has  as  by  the  gains  he  makes.  Nobody  who  is 
gaining  in  his  ability  to  tell  stories  need  be  discouraged. 
Progress,  as  we  have  said,  requires  courage  and  practice. 
Courage  is  needed  because  the  story-teller  has  to  face  the 
close  attention  of  his  hearers,  and  has  to  make  good  their 
expectations.  Practice  enables  him  to  see  his  mistakes  and 
his  successes,  and  to  make  each  attempt  a  little  better  than 
the  preceding  one. 

The  Beginning.  Narrations  have  already  been  discussed 
in  Chapter  V.  Since  what  has  been  said  there  applies 
also  to  the  funny  story  we  shall  here  add  only  some 
special  directions. 

In  beginning  the  story  or  joke,  one  must  bring  out 
clearly  the  attending  circumstances  which  arc  necessary  to 
the  point.  These  may  include,  as  suggested  on  page  So, 
the  persons,  the  time,  and  the  place.     In  the  case  of  some 


2IO         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

humorous  stories,  facts  mentioned  at  the  first  are  neces- 
sary to  the  understanding  of  the  points  involved.  For  ex- 
ample, the  story  told  of  the  boy  who  wrote  "  have  went " 
for  "  have  gone  "  depends  for  its  success  upon  the  hearers' 
knowing  that  the  boy  was  being  punished  for  that  mistake. 
Include  all  necessary  preliminaries. 

Details  which  are  not  essential  to  the  point  of  the  story 
should  by  all  means  be  omitted ;  it  is  these  which  make  so 
many  story-tellings  tiresome. 

The  Point.  The  point  in  a  funny  story  usually  lies  in 
three  or  four  words.  The  speaker  must  not  let  his  listen- 
ers miss  even  one  of  these.  The  story-teller  has  failed  if  it 
is  necessary  for  any  person  in  the  audience  to  ask  his  neigh- 
bor the  point  of  a  joke.  Score  the  point  roundly,  but  do 
not  repeat  it ;  repeating  a  joke  or  attempting  to  explain  it 
puts  one  in  a  hopeless  position  as  a  story-teller. 

The  Kind  of  Jokes  to  Tell.  A  recent  writer  remarks  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  humor  of  certain  European  countries 
is  based  on  brutality  or  vulgarity.  It  seems  true,  unfortu- 
nately, that  many  people  take  pleasure  in  repeating  stories 
that  ought  to  die  out  —  stories  that  lower  one's  self-respect 
in  the  telling.  On  the  other  hand,  the  world  is  full  of 
good  jokes  and  wholesome  fun.  Why  not,  therefore,  leave 
out  of  our  lives  and  conversations  the  stories  not  altogether 
decent .''  The  habit  of  appreciating  and  transmitting  the 
best  kind  of  fun,  with  kindness  and  healthiness  of  mind, 
is  an  asset  to  one's  self  and  to  others.  Cultivate  it  in  your 
reading,  conversation,  and  public  speaking. 

Application  of  the  Joke.  Many  stories  are  given  as  a 
part  of  another  talk,  told  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  an 
argument.    Thus,  a  political  speaker  used  this  story  to  show 


HUMOROUS  STORIES  AND  JOKES  21 1 

the  position  of  the  Southern  sugar  planters  on  the  Under- 
wood tariff. 

The  Louisiana  Democrats  had  voted  for  \\'ilson.  But  after  he 
took  office  and  began  to  advocate  free  sugar,  they  began  to  do  a 
great  deal  of  worrying  and  complaining.  The  speaker  said  that 
the  situation  reminded  him  of  how  Willie  got  the  wasp.  A  mother, 
her  small  son,  and  nurse  were  traveling  in  a  train  ;  the  boy  and  the 
nurse  together,  and  the  mother  comfortably  reading  a  novel  across 
the  aisle.  The  boy  had  noticed  a  wasp  flying  along  the  window, 
and  was  reaching  up  a  hand  to  it.  Suddenly  the  mother  heard  a 
cry.  Looking  up  from  her  book,  she  said,  "  Nurse,  let  Willie  have 
what  he  wants."    The  nurse  replied,  "  Please,  ma'am,  he  's  got  it." 

Using  Stories  in  Arguments.  Three  special  cautions  are 
necessary  in  applying  stories  to  arguments.  First,  do  not 
tell  stories  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  argument. 
Many  a  debater  or  lawyer  wins  applause  by  a  rapid  fire 
of  fun,  but  the  stories  do  not  appeal  to  the  judges  and 
juries  when  it  comes  to  the  decision.  Second,  so  tell  the 
story  that  its  application  will  be  perfectly  clear.  Third,  do 
not  attempt  to  point  out  the  application  of  the  story  ;  the 
audience  will  apply  it  themselves  with  much  better  effect. 

EXERCISES 

1.  There  are  certain  weekly  and  monthly  magazines  and  a  few 
newspapers  which  make  a  business  of  collecting  and  publishing  the 
best  humorous  stories  and  jokes.  Find  one  or  two  good  stories, 
study  them  well,  practice  them,  and  come  to  class  prepared  to 
give  them  successfully. 

2.  Every  person  has  had  many  funny  experiences  —  funny  at 
the  time  or  funny  as  he  looks  back  at  them.  The  writer  will 
always  remember  with  a  smile  the  day  when  he  was  learning  to 
ride  a  bicycle  and  met  his  teacher  and  proudly  tried  to  raise  his 


212         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

hat.  Think  over  some  experiences  which  are  funny  and  which  will 
be  worth  telling.  Come  prepared  to  tell  one  or  two  in  class. 
Some  of  the  following  situations  may  be  suggestive : 

1.  The  street  car.  6.  In  stores. 


2. 

At  church. 

7. 

On  the  street. 

3. 

On  the  school  grounds. 

8. 

Tricks. 

4. 

In  the  schoolroom. 

9. 

Trips  or  camping, 

5. 

Games  and  sports. 

10. 

Work. 

3.  Think  of  an  argumentative  point  to  which  a  story  might 
apply.  Find  a  story  which  helps  to  prove  it.  Then  prepare  to 
give  very  briefly  the  statement  or  argument  and  the  story  which 
helps  to  enforce  it.  You  must  think  over  very  carefully  just  what 
should  be  said.    The  following  topics  may  suggest  arguments : 

1.  School  discipline.  6.  Social  affairs. 

2.  School  studies.  7.  Politics. 

3.  City  affairs.  8.  Scientific  questions. 

4.  National  affairs.  9.  Newspapers. 

5.  Foreign  affairs.  10.  Work  and  methods  of  work. 

VI.    INTERVIEWS 

An  interview  is  a  conversation  for  a  definite  purpose ; 
for  example,  seeking  information,  or  persuading  a  person 
to  agree  to  a  business  proposition.  Over  and  over  again 
men  and  women,  young  and  old,  must  go  through  the 
give-and-take  involved  in  such  conversations,  no  matter 
what  their  callings  or  life  interests. 

Courtesy  and  Directness.  The  chief  requisites  of  a  suc- 
cessful interviewer  are  courtesy  and  directness.  The  Golden 
Rule  is  the  best  possible  rule,  for  interviews.  Anything  else 
is  short-sighted  and  must  eventually  fail.  If  you  wish  suc- 
cess, therefore,  you  must  invite  it.  You  must  not  intrude 
into  a  person's  home  or  office  unannounced,  hurriedly,  or 


INTERVIEWS  213 

disrespectfully.  You  may  send  in  your  card  to  the  person 
you  wish  to  see,  or  present  it  to  him  as  you  come  face  to 
face.  Otherwise,  you  must  tell  your  name  at  the  beginning. 
You  must  wait  to  be  asked  to  sit,  and  must  care  for  your 
own  hat.  A  carelessness  about  one  of  these  little  things 
may  easily  create  a  prejudice  against  you  that  will  make 
your  interview  absolutely  fruitless.  The  person  you  approach 
may  judge  you  by  the  first  little  impressions  of  manner 
and  dress.  Be  open  in  your  manner,  but  reserved  at  the 
same  time.  If  there  is  to  be  joking  or  an  informal  style  of 
conversation  let  the  person  being  interviewed  begin  it. 

State  your  business  as  soon  as  you  conveniently  can.  If 
you  have  a  complicated  proposition  to  present,  preface  it 
with  a  hint  as  to  its  general  nature ;  for  example,  "  I  called 
to  try  to  interest  you  in  a  new  device  for  starting  auto- 
mobiles," or  "The  high  school  sent  me  here  to  ask  you  to 
act  as  a  judge  in  the  debate  next  month."  Unfortunately, 
it  is  true  that  some  people  seem  to  try  to  hold  back  the 
true  nature  of  their  business,  intending,  evidently,  to  attract 
the  listener  by  means  of  irrelevant  matter,  and  to  mention 
the  disagreeable  points  at  a  more  favorable  time.  Such 
evasions  are  always  less  effective  than  straightforwardness. 

The  chapter  on  Business  Talks  gives  suggestions  that 
will  be  helpful  in  preparing  the  outline  to  follow  in  the 
interview. 

Following  the  Lead  of  Interest.  Having  presented  your 
request  or  proposition,  wait  the  pleasure  of  your  hearer. 
Do  not  keep  up  a  steady  flow  of  words.  Be  as  ready  to 
listen  as  to  talk.  If  your  companion  has  interrupted  with 
questions,  these  will  show  you  the  direction  of  his  interest. 
Put  aside  your  outline  for  the  moment,  and  follow  where 


214         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

he  leads.  Be  ready  to  meet  all  questions,  admitting  disad- 
vantages and  answering  objections.  Do  not  allow  anything 
said  to  rufifle  your  good  humor.  Constant  courtesy  is  your 
part,  regardless  of  the  other  person's  behavior.  Preserve 
the  best  of  good  feeling,  even  if  you  disagree  with  him. 
Sometimes  the  objections  your  companion  urges  give  the 
best  possible  clue  to  the  interest  he  has  in  the  subject. 
Then  you  must  try  to  see  the  proposition  from  his  point 
of  view,  and  show  him  by  tactfully  appealing  to  these  inter- 
ests that  he  should  agree  to  do  what  is  best  for  himself. 

Care  in  making  Agreements.  If  the  interview  leads  to 
an  understanding  or  agreement,  make  this  as  definite  as 
possible.  If  you  have  documents  to  present,  have  them 
well  labeled  and  arranged,  and  state  their  nature  or  purpose 
as  you  show  them.  Many  interviews  lead,  of  course,  to  the 
signing  of  papers,  others  to  the  paying  of  money,  others  to 
the  transfer  of  goods.  Let  whatever  is  done  be  done  with 
no  hurry,  but  with  complete  understanding  and  agreement. 
Perhaps  you  should  make  out  and  give  to  the  person  you 
are  interviewing  a  memorandum  of  some  sort.  For  example, 
the  man  who  is  to  be  a  debating  judge  should  be  handed 
a  card  stating  the  date,  time,  and  place  of  the  contest. 
Your  interview  may  then  end  with  some  conversation  of  a 
social  or  general  nature,  or  at  least  with  the  usual  expression 
of  thanks  and  good  day. 

A  Plan  for  Schoolroom  Practice.  It  will  be  excellent 
practice  for  the  students  to  group  themselves  into  pairs  for 
interviews.  Each  pair  should  talk  over  the  details  before- 
hand :  how  the  interview  shall  begin,  how  it  shall  proceed, 
how  it  shall  end,  etc.  The  interview  should  not  be  re- 
hearsed, for  the  chief  value  of  the  exercise  comes  from  the 


INTERVIEWS  215 

impromptu  and  somewhat  unexpected  nature  of  the  ques- 
tions and  replies.  For  each  interview  the  students  concerned 
may  appropriately  arrange  the  chairs  and  table  at  the  front, 
and  may  tell  the  audience  what  the  place  is  supposed  to  be. 
The  speakers  must  talk  to  each  other  a  little  louder  than 
they  would  naturally,  for  now  there  is  an  audience  present 
to  listen. 

Some  interviews  need  three  or  more  persons.  It  will 
afford  excellent  training  for  students  to  arrange  scenes  with 
persons  entering  and  leaving,  as  -in  a  real  office. 

EXERCISES 

I .  Choose  a  partner,  decide  with  him  what  interview  to  arrange, 
talk  over  how  the  conversation  is  to  proceed,  and  then  give  it  in 
class.  Arrange  your  positions  so  that  both  of  you  will  face  the 
audience,  and  speak  at  all  times  loud  enough  for  everyone  to 
hear.    The  following  may  afford  good  suggestions: 

1.  Giving  a  grocery  order.  12.  Offering  an  apology. 

2.  Asking     information     about      13.  Asking  for  an  explanation. 

colleges.  14.  Arranging  for  repairs. 

3.  Securing    a    speaker    for    a      15.  Buying    concert    or    theater 

meeting.  tickets. 

4.  Renting  a  house.  16.  Buying  a  motor  cycle. 

5.  Insuring  a  building.  17.  Asking  for   a  recommenda- 

6.  Telephoning  an  order.  tion. 

7.  Asking  advice   about  going  18.  Securing   an    umpire    for    a 

into  business.  baseball  game. 

8.  Asking  for  a  higher  position.  19.  Department-store     manager 

9.  Asking  an  increase  in  salary.  instructing     one     of     his 
10.  Serving  a  notice   to  vacate  buyers. 

a  store.  20.  Joining  a  club  or  association. 

II.  Selling  an  adas. 

See  the  exercises  for  Chapter  VII. 


2l6         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

2.  Choose  a  partner  for  an  interview  in  which  one  person  has 
objections  to  acceding  to  the  other's  wishes.  Do  not  talk  over 
together  what  the  objections  or  arguments  may  be,  but  let  each 
person  separately  think  very  clearly  about  his  own  course  of 
thought  and  action ;  the  one,  what  objections  he  has  to  the  pro- 
posed request,  and  the  other,  what  objections  may  possibly  be 
urged  and  how  they  may  be  answered.  Do  not,  however,  tr}^  any 
false  salesmanship,  attempting  to  make  a  person  do  what  he  does 
not  wish  to  do.  Rather  have  so  good  a  proposition  that  he  will 
gladly  change  his  mind.    The  following  are  only  suggestions : 

1.  Collecting  a  bill.  6.  Securing    a    singer    for    an 

2.  Selling  a  knife  sharpener.  entertainment. 

(Demonstrate  its  action.)  7.  Soliciting  an  advertisement. 

3.  Applying  for  a  position.  8.  Asking  a  person  to  be  a  busi- 

4.  Asking  for  credit.  ness  partner. 

5.  Arranging  for  a  football  game.  9.  Asking  a  loan. 

10.  Interviewing  for  a  newspaper. 

See  the  exercises  for  Chapter  VII. 

VII.  CONVERSATIONS 

We  are  always  practicing  conversations,  yet  we  rarely  try 
consciously  to  improve  our  abilities  as  conversationalists.  If 
we  can  talk  with  others  helpfully  and  attractively,  we  shall 
find  valuable  friends  and  add  to  the  store  of  mutual  under- 
standing and  happiness. 

This  book  cannot  attempt  to  explain  the  complete  eti- 
quette of  the  subject ;  it  can  only  indicate  some  important 
common  principles. 

The  Need  for  Good  Topics.  If  you  choose  a  partner  from 
the  class  and  take  the  floor  for  a  social  conversation,  you 
will  soon  learn  the  need  for  the  ability  to  '"  keep  the  con- 
versation going."     It  is  decidedly  helpful  to  have  in  mind 


CONVERSATIONS  217 

three  or  four  topics  which  will  be  interesting  to  your  partner. 
A  person  can  have  an  enjoyable  and  profitable  talk  with 
almost  anybody  if  he  deliberately  tries  to  lead  the  conversa- 
tion to  the  interests  and  activities  of  the  person  with  whom 
he  is  talking.  Once  get  good  topics  of  conversation  and 
the  rest  is  not  difficult.  Try  to  avoid  depending  on  school 
affairs,  or  on  ""What  have  you  been  doing.?"  or  "'Where 
have  you  been  keeping  yourself.?"  even  for  opening  a  talk. 
Carlyle  laughs  at  trite  and  tiresome  topics  of  conversation, 
and  calls  the  weather  ""that  great  boon  to  society." 

Listening.  A  common  fault  in  conversation  is  the  failure 
to  listen.  Have  you  ever  had  the  experience  of  saying 
something  to  another,  and  finding  by  his  reply  that  he  was 
only  using  that  time  to  think  up  a  remark  of  his  own  ? 
There  can  be  no  good  conversation  without  willingness  on 
the  part  of  each  participant  to  listen  to  what  the  other  says. 

Ending.  Ending  a  conversation  is  often  as  hard  for  some 
talkers  as  coming  to  the  point  in  an  interview.  Perhaps  the 
best  way  is  frankly  to  rise  at  a  convenient  pause  and  then 
to  make  your  adieus.  '"  I  must  be  going,"  or  '"  It's  getting 
late,"  or  ""  I  have  another  engagement,"  are  not  much  more 
sensible  than  is,  ""I  thought  I  would  write  to  you "  for 
opening  a  letter.  Your  rising  will  indicate  that  you  must 
go,  and  your  parting  remarks  might  better  indicate  the 
pleasure  you  have  had  in  the  conversation:  ""Well,  I've 
enjoyed  this  talk  "  ;  ""I  hope  to  talk  with  you  again  soon  "  ; 
"We  haven't  exhausted  these  questions;  I  hope  we  shall 
soon  have  another  chance  to  talk "  ;  ""I  wish  you  would 
come  and  see  me." 

Introducing  Persons  to  Each  Other.  It  is  excellent  prac- 
tice to  introduce  two  persons  to  each  other.    In  doing  this 


21 8         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

be  sure  to  speak  both  names  distinctly.  Remember,  if  you 
are  introducing  a  man  and  a  woman,  that  you  should  address 
your  introduction  to  the  woman :  "  Miss  Thomas,  this  is 
Mr.  Williams."  When  one  of  the  persons  has  some  interest 
which  may  appeal  to  the  other,  it  is  a  great  aid  to  their 
conversation  to  mention  it  just  after  the  introduction : 
"Mr.  W'illiams  is  a  violinist"  or  "Mr.  Williams  studied 
the  violin  in  Vienna ;  Miss  Thomas  has  been  studying 
music  in  the  East." 

Large  and  varied  interests,  wide  information,  judicious 
reading,  worth-while  experiences,  broad  sympathy  with  those 
one  meets,  and  a  readiness  in  the  expression  of  one's 
ideas  —  all  these  are  necessary  to  the  making  of  a  good 
conversationalist. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  twenty  topics  about  which  you  are  sufficiently 
informed  to  hold  conversations.  Then  write  another  list  of  twenty 
topics  about  which  you  are  not  informed,  but  about  which  you 
would  like  to  talk  for  the  purposes  of  friendly  conversation  and 
general  information.  In  class  compare  notes  with  other  students, 
and  in  this  way  find  partners  for  two  conversations,  one  in  which 
you  lead  and  one  in  which  you  question.  Give  the  conversations 
in  class.    Face  the  audience  and  try  to  make  everyone  hear. 

2.  Below  is  a  list  of  topics.  First  we  have  a  general  subject, 
and  next  one  of  the  specific  questions  of  interest  in  that  field. 
Choose  a  partner,  and  hold  a  conversation  on  one  of  these  topics, 
or  on  another  suggested  by  one  of  them. 

1.  Art.  What  kind  of  pictures  do  you  like? 

2.  Music.    What  is  the  advantage  to  be  gained  by  studying  good 
music? 

3.  Architecture.     Is   a   street   more   attractive  with    buildings   of 
uniform  design.'' 


CONVERSATIONS  219 

4.  Books.    Do  we  read  enough  works  of  fiction,  or  too  many? 

5.  Magazines.   Which  have  the  best  short  stories.'' 

6.  Plays.   What  kind  should  the  school  give? 

7.  Science.   What  gains  have  been  made  by  soil  analysis? 

8.  Travel.    Should  you  like  to  see  South  America? 

9.  Aviation.    Will    aeroplanes   ever   carry    passengers   and   make 
regular  trips? 

10.  Athletics.    Is  "  indoor  baseball  "  better  than  basket  ball  ? 

11.  City  parks,  streets,  or  schools.  Which  is  our  most  attractive  park? 

12.  Peace  and  war.    Does  a  war  indirecdy  help  to  make  a  lasting 
peace  possible  ? 

13.  Poverty.    What  can  the  city  do  to  help  the  poorer  people  of 
this  city? 

14.  Political  prospects.   Who  should  win  in  the  next  election  ? 

15.  American  cities.   Which  would  be  the  most  interesting  to  see? 

16.  Financial  affairs.    Are  the  banks  as  safe  as  they  can  be  made? 

17.  Business  affairs.    Is  this  city  a  good  place  for  a  young  man  or 
woman  to  start  business  ? 

18.  Newspapers.     Should    the    papers    be   controlled    by   the   city 
government  to  see  that  they  do  not  print  anything  objectionable? 

19.  Mexico.   What  can  be  done  to  help  improve  the  conditions  of 
living  in  Mexico  ? 

20.  Colleges.   Which  college  should  you  prefer  to  attend  ? 

3.  Choose  a  partner  to  act  the  part,   and  hold   a  dignified, 
friendly  conversation  with  one  of  the  following  persons : 

12.  A  locomotive  engineer. 


1. 

An  elderly  man. 

2. 

An  elderly  woman. 

3. 

A  small  boy. 

4. 

A  little  girl. 

5. 

A  labor-union  member. 

6. 

A  capitalist. 

7. 

A  statesman. 

8. 

A  politician. 

9. 

A  teacher. 

10. 

A  preacher. 

11. 

A  farmer. 

13. 

A  ditch  digger. 

14. 

A  member  of  the  Industrial 

Workers  of  the  World. 

15. 

A  tennis  champion. 

16. 

An  Englishman. 

17. 

A  German. 

18. 

A  housing  expert. 

19. 

An  artist. 

20. 

A  policeman. 

220         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

4.  Choose  one  or  more  of  the  situations  named  below.  Select 
a  partner  or  partners,  decide  what  part  each  will  take,  and  give 
the  conversation. 

1.  Inviting  somebody  to  a  party  or  game  or  entertainment. 

2.  Friends  waiting  for  an  entertainment  to  begin. 

3.  Friends  meeting  on  the  street  after  twenty  years. 

4.  Waiting  in  line  at  the  box  office. 

5.  At  a  dinner  or  a  banquet. 

6.  Strangers  conversing  on  the  street  car. 

7.  Christmas  shopping,  or  Christmas  presents. 

8.  At  a  celebration. 

9.  In  a  train  ;  on  an  aeroplane ;  on  a  steamer. 
10.  Guests  arriving  for  a  dinner. 

5.  Introduce  the  following  persons  to  each  other,  and  hold  a 
conversation  with  them : 

1.  A  newspaper  man  and  a  musician. 

2.  A  schoolboy  and  a  business  man. 

3.  A  mayor  and  a  Civil-War  veteran. 

4.  A  blacksmith  and  a  teacher. 

5.  A  personal  friend  to  your  partner. 

6.  A  stenographer  to  an  office  boy. 

7.  Two  speakers  at  a  lecture,  just  before  the  lecture. 

8.  A  Democrat  and  a  Republican. 

9.  Your  school  principal  and  yourself. 

10.  The  guests  arriving  at  your  house  for  a  dinner. 

VIII.    EXTEMPORE  PLAYS 

The  purpose  of  this  section  is  to  give  directions  for 
simple  one-act  plays,  the  plots  of  which  may  be  readily 
planned  by  the  students,  and  the  words  made  up  as  the  play 
proceeds.    We  shall  not  deal  with  memorized  dramatics. 

How  to  Begin.  It  will  be  possible  for  any  students  to  give 
an  extempore  play  if  they  have  had  some  practice  in  the 
work  of  previous  sections.    Since  an  interview,  as  proposed 


EXTEMPORE  PLAYS  221 

above,  •  involves  assuming  and  carrying  out  the  role  of  an- 
other person,  the  extempore  play  may  well  begin  with  inter- 
views. Suppose,  for  example,  that  three  instead  of  two 
persons  take  part  in  a  conversation,  one  of  them  entering 
the  room  after  the  other  two,  a  motor-cycle  agent  and  the 
manager  of  a  newspaper,  have  started  a  discussion  on  the 
purchase  of  a  new  machine.  The  newcomer  recognizes 
the  agent  as  an  old  friend  whom  he  has  not  seen  for  a  long 
time.  It  develops  that  the  newcomer  also  wishes  to  sell  the 
manager  a  motor  cycle.  The  manager  insists  on  hearing 
about  the  latter's  machine,  and  decides  to  order  one  at  once. 
The  first  agent  is  naturally  disappointed,  but  is  made  happy 
by  the  invitation  of  his  rival  to  become  a  partner  in  the 
agency  for  the  better  machine. 

It  does  not  require  "dramatic  ability"  to  begin  in  this 
way.  The  purpose  in  this  section  is  to  present  a  plan  which 
may  be  followed  by  anybody  determined  to  succeed,  and  not 
merely  by  the  few  who  may  have  exceptional  talent. 

The  extempore  plays  should  grow  out  of  the  other  work. 
The  plot  is  the  new  element  added  to  the  ordinary  inter- 
view ;  and  the  plot  may  be  defined  as  a  centering  of  the 
interest  around  a  problem  which  appears  as  the  story  pro- 
ceeds —  a  problem  which  is  solved  near  the  end. 

Selecting  the  Plot :  Some  Examples.  In  selecting  the 
plot,  students  must  have  in  mind  interest,  simplicity,  and 
good  taste.  Usable  plots  are  as  numerous  and  as  varied  as 
are  the  problems  of  life  itself.  We  give  here  a  few  examples, 
to  encourage  students  to  think  out  plots  of  their  own. 

1.  Real-Estate  Office.  A  man  who  wishes  to  rent  a  six-room  house 
in  a  certain  locality  enters  a  real-estate  office.  Details  are  discussed 
and  several  houses  proposed,  but  none  suits.    The  agent  asks  the  man  to 


222         ADDITIONAL  TALKS  AND  EXERCISES 

copy  down  addresses  and  look  at  the  houses.  While  he  writes,  another 
man  enters.  He  wishes  to  list  just  such  a  house  as  the  first  man  wants. 
The  agent  steps  out  to  consult  his  partner  in  another  room,  and  the  first 
man  asks  the  second  about  the  house  and  agrees  to  take  it.  The  agent 
is  surprised  and  disappointed,  but  is  offered  and  accepts  half  the 
usual  fee. 

2.  Hotel.  During  a  rush  of  business  the  hotel  clerk  and  a  bell  boy 
assign  rooms  until  the  house  is  filled  to  its  capacity.  Various  guests 
come  to  the  office  and  complain  of  the  noise  and  poor  accommodations, 
but  there  is  no  relief.  Finally,  the  manager  is  sent  for ;  he  listens  to  the 
complaints,  then  asks  the  clerk  for  his  resignation,  and  sends  some  of 
the  guests  to  another  hotel. 

3.  School  of  Dramatics  in  a  Crowded  Tenement.  Various  persons 
are  receiving  lessons.  Neighbors  of  several  nationalities  complain  with- 
out results.    A  policeman  is  sent  for  and  ejects  the  actors. 

4.  Impossible  Policeman.  The  police  sergeant  drills  a  new  policeman 
and  instructs  him  in  his  duties.  When  sent  out  to  enforce  the  laws,  he 
makes  all  sorts  of  errors  and  foolish  arrests.  The  sergeant  scolds,  and 
gives  him  copies  of  the  laws  to  read.  Continued  failures  lead  to  his 
resignation. 

5 .  Too  much  Automobile.  A  man  has  no  sooner  bought  an  automobile 
than  he  is  interviewed  by  agents  for  speedometers,  self-starters,  tires, 
rugs,  pumps,  etc.  An  insurance  agent  proposes  various  kinds  of  insurance, 
and  the  tax  collector  and  an  auto-club  agent  call.  In  great  disgust  the 
man  decides  to  sell  his  car. 

6.  Millinery  Store.  Two  women  enter  a  store  and  tire  the  clerk  by 
trying  on  all  the  hats  without  making  a  decision.  Since  they  interfere 
with  other  customers,  the  clerk  finally  tells  the  floorwalker,  who  instructs 
the  head  saleswoman  to  ask  the  two  customers  to  leave.  She  comes  and 
asks  the  women  if  they  cannot  find  what  they  want.  They  try  all  the 
hats  again,  the  head  saleswoman  growing  more  and  more  impatient. 
Finally  she  tells  them  the  store  has  nothing  which  will  suit  them.  As 
they  start  to  leave,  the  floorwalker  recognizes  one  as  a  friend  whom  he 
has  not  seen  for  a  long  time. 

7.  Collecting  the  Rent.  A  woman's  caUing  day  is  disturbed  by  a  rent 
collector.  The  hostess  tells  the  collector  the  rent  has  been  paid  ;  he  tells 
her  that  eviction  is  imminent,  the  rent  being  sixty  days  overdue.  He 
threatens  to  call  an  officer  and  remove  the  furniture.    She  telephones  to 


EXTEMPORE  PLAYS  223 

her  husband,  who  says  he  will  bring  a  lawyer.  Some  guests  leave; 
others  arrive.  Husband  and  lawyer  arrive.  The  lawyer  demands  that 
the  agent  show  his  papers,  and  finds  that  the  latter  has  made  an  error 
in  the  house  number.  The  agent  apologizes ;  the  husband  threatens 
arrest.    The  lawyer  charges  ten  dollars. 

A  beginning  may  sometimes  be  made  with  impromptu 
dramatizations  of  stories  or  parts  of  works  of  fiction. 

Assigning  the  Parts.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  prepare  a 
play  is  to  have  a  group  of  from  three  to  eight  students 
think  out  a  plot,  such  as  a  scene  in  a  railway  station.  The 
teacher  may  help  with  suggestions  at  first.  The  assignment 
of  parts  may  begin  at  once,  even  before  the  story  is  worked 
out.  Let  the  group  decide  who  will  act  as  ticket  agent, 
who  as  traveler,  and  who  as  gatekeeper.  Then,  as  the 
many  suggestions  for  the  story  are  considered,  the  plot  is 
gradually  developed,  and  all  the  parts  assigned. 

Preparation.  The  amount  of  preparation  for  a  play  varies 
with  its  purpose.  If  the  group  is  to  give  it  for  practice  in 
speaking  merely,  or  for  amusement,  then  carefully  discuss- 
ing the  plot  beforehand  should  be  sufficient.  Every  par- 
ticipant should  understand  how  the  play  is  to  begin  and 
end,  when  he  is  to  enter,  approximately  what  he  is  to  do 
and  say,  and  when  he  is  to  leave. 

If  the  aim  is  a  careful  presentation,  then  it  may  well  be 
rehearsed.  The  repeated  practices  will  lead  to  the  use  of 
more  appropriate  words,  just  as  does  such  repetition  for  a 
debater's  speech,  or  for  any  other  speech.  After  a  little 
practice,  any  group  can  plan  out  a  story,  talk  over  the  plot, 
and  give  the  play  successfully. 

Properties.  The  costumes  and  the  properties  should  be 
simple.     I'^laborate  costumes  are  not  at  all  necessary  ;   the 


224      ADDITIONAL  STORIES  AND  EXERCISES 

ordinary  clothes  are  best  in  most  cases,  but  the  simple  change 
of  a  coat  or  a  different  hat  will  often  help  a  person  to  assume 
a  different  personality.  Facial  decorations  should  be  omitted, 
since  these  plays  are  not  so  much  for  an  audience  as  for  the 
players  themselves.  The  front  of  the  room  may  have  a  table 
or  desk  and  a  few  chairs.  A  few  additional  stage  properties 
may  be  useful :  broom,  duster,  books,  bench,  and  other  mis- 
cellaneous articles.  Signs  posted  on  the  wall  or  door  to  act 
as  hints  to  the  audience  are  particularly  useful.  Members  of 
the  group  can  easily  bring  the  small  properties  needed. 

The  Presentation.  Little  more  need  be  said  about  the 
presentation.  Players  must  remember  that  as  much  of  the 
talking  as  is  possible  should  be  directed  toward  the  audi- 
ence. When  two  players  are  supposed  to  be  talking  to- 
gether they  must  glance  occasionally  at  each  other,  but 
most  of  their  sentences  should  be  spoken  towards  the 
audience.  Better  still,  the  speakers  should  arrange  them- 
selves in  such  a  way  that  they  can  easily  face  the  audience 
when  they  are  speaking.  In  a  small  room,  of  course,  these 
considerations  are  not  so  important. 

Success  is  attained  by  forgetting  one's  self  and  by  acting 
the  part  to  the  best  of  one's  ability.  The  greatest  tempta- 
tion for  new  players  is  to  laugh  at  the  wrong  time.  The 
student  should  leave  the  laughing  for  the  audience  unless 
it  comes  in  the  part  he  is  playing.  Care  and  interest  in 
the  work  in  extempore  plays  will  result  in  a  great  deal  of 
fun,  and  in  good  practice  in  speaking. 

EXERCISE 

Divide  the  class  into  several  small  groups,  and  let  each  group 
plan  and  give  an  extempore  play. 


V 


PART  II.    ARGUMENTATION  AND 
PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

CHAPTER  XIII 

ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

Chapter  II  gives  condensed  directions  for  preparing  an 
argument ;  this  chapter  aims  to  amplify  those  directions 
for  older  students  and  to  offer  suggestions  for  debating. 
No  attempt  is  here  made  to  help  students  analyze  classic 
orations  and  arguments  ;  the  purpose  is  rather  to  prepare 
them  to  discuss  in  reasonably  good  style  the  subjects  upon 
which  the  opinions  of  men  and  women  of  to-day  differ. 

Many  students  seem  afraid  to  try  argument  and  debate ; 
yet  in  their  classes  in  history,  English,  mathematics,  science, 
and  the  languages  they  are  constantly  dealing  with  evidence, 
and  presenting  more  or  less  complete  arguments.  What 
these  students  need  is  to  learn  how  to  make  a  brief  :  to 
learn  to  group  items  of  evidence  under  the  several  heads 
which  prove  the  proposition,  and  to  express  these  heads  in 
simple  sentences  instead  of  in  topics.  These  things  we  shall 
discuss  at  the  proper  time,  but  first  we  must  consider  some 
fundamental  principles. 

The  Nature  of  Argument.  Argument  convinces, —  it 
shows  truth  and  error, —  and  to  accomplish  this,  narrative, 
descriptive,  and  explanatory  material  must  be  used  as  evi- 
dence.   With  this  material  reasons  are  developed  to  prove 

22  C 


226  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

some  one  position  in  regard  to  the  question.  Thus,  if  we 
were  discussing  the  question  of  giving  the  PhiHppine  Islands 
their  independence,  we  should  study  their  history,  resources, 
customs,  opinions,  activities,  and  the  forces  at  work  among 
them  ;  and  from  these  facts  we  should  reason  as  to  their 
rights,  desires,  abilities,  and  the  probable  effect  of  independ- 
ence on  them.  Narration,  description,  and  explanation  fur- 
nish facts  which  give  evidence  ;  argument  attempts  to  prove 
that  one  of  two  contrary  opinions  is  true. 

The  Correct  Spirit  in  Argument.  The  reason  for  carry- 
ing on  an  argument  is  the  desire  to  find  the  truth.  In 
most  arguments  the  truth  lies  somewhere  between  two  opin- 
ions, and  for  this  reason  no  speaker  should  be  too  sure  of 
his  position  or  too  insistent  in  his  enthusiasn.  Let  him 
always  give  the  other  opinion  a  full  and  patient  considera- 
tion, and  assume  the  other  speaker's  sincerity. 

Should  a  person  ever  argue  on  the  side  of  a  question 
which  is  against  his  own  beliefs  ?  Yes,  and  no.  Yes,  if  it 
can  be  done  with  no  moral  hurt  to  himself  or  to  others. 
There  are  many  questions  about  which  sincere  and  good 
men  disagree.  At  the  school  age  one  has  and  should  have 
opinions  on  these  questions ;  yet  what  student  knows 
whether  or  not  these  will  be  his  final  opinions  ?  Should 
the  Philippines  be  free .?  Would  complete  free  trade  be  a 
good  thing.?  Do  athletics  injure  scholarship.?  Should 
American  cities  own  their  street  railways  ?  It  would  be 
of  real  value  to  a  person  in  the  case  of  such  questions  to 
study  and  speak  on  the  side  in  which  he  does  not  believe. 
By  so  doing  he  will  learn  much,  and  in  the  end  will  be- 
come a  better  advocate  of  the  side  which  he  finally  takes. 


PRELIMINARIES  227 

In  many  cases,  however,  injury  might  be  done  the 
speaker's  character  and  the  opinion  of  his  hearers  if  he 
argues  against  his  honest  convictions.  Suppose,  for  exam- 
ple, the  question  has  to  do  with  "preparedness,"  and  the 
student  strongly  believes  that  it  would  be  a  positive  wrong 
for  our  government  to  increase  its  standing  army  and  its 
navy.  In  such  a  case,  it  would  be  unwise  for  the  student 
to  uphold  the  affirmative,  because  of  the  effect  on  him  of 
practicing  what  would  be  insincerity,  false  enthusiasm,  and 
wrong  argument. 

I.    PRELIMINARIES 

If  the  student  could  see  the  amount  of  planning  a  lawyer 
makes  for  each  case,  he  would  realize  that  skillful  debaters 
attach  great  importance  to  definite  preparation  for  each 
effort.  The  debater,  like  the  lawyer,  usually  speaks  but 
once  on  any  given  question.  Accordingly,  he  must  prepare 
for  the  argument  in  a  manner  worthy  of  his  subject,  him- 
self, and  his  audience.  We  shall  deal  in  this  section  with 
the  preliminaries  to  the  argument,  and  in  the  following 
section  with  the  building  up  of  the  argument  itself. 

Selecting,  Stating,  and  Testing  the  Subject.  If  the 
speaker  is  a  beginner  in  systematic  argument,  he  should  by 
all  means  select  some  topic  about  which  he  is  already  in- 
formed. In  any  case  let  the  topic  be  an  interesting  and 
important  one.  Few  would  care  to  debate  about  the  justice 
of  a  revolution  in  Portugal,  or  about  the  relative  abilities  of 
Alexander  and  Napoleon.  When  the  argument  is  to  be 
made  in  public,  it  will  be  a  distinct  advantage  if  the  hearers 
also  are  somewhat  familiar  with  the  subject. 


228  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

After  the  general  topic  is  selected,  great  care  should  be 
exercised  to  frame  a  concise,  clear  statement,  called  the  prop- 
osition. In  most  cases  the  proposition  for  debate  should 
be  affirmatively  stated.  It  should  be  definite,  and  should 
be  restricted  fo~a  single  question  which  has  two  sides. 
The  following  question  seems  to  satisfy  all  these  tests : 
"  Postage  on  letters  sent  within  the  United  States  should 
be  reduced  to  one  cent." 

The  following  statements  of  questions  have  faults  as  in- 
dicated :  "  The  commission  form  of  government  is  not 
adapted  to  the  requirements  of  large  cities."  Among  other 
faults,  a  negative  statement  like  this  is  apt  to  cause  con- 
fusion if,  for  instance,  the  affirmative  should  win.  (There 
seems  to  be  no  objection  to  the  negative  statement  of  the 
question,  "  Children  under  twelve  years  of  age  should  not 
be  allowed  in  moving-picture  theaters  unless  accompanied 
by  adults,"  though  the  use  of  the  word  '  not '  may  easily 
be  avoided  by  using  'prohibited.')  "The  West  is  more 
progressive  than  the  East,"  is  indefinite  in  its  three  im- 
portant words,  and  thus  no  sensible  debate  could  result,  at 
least  not  until  both  sides  agreed  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
words.  "The  term  of  the  president  of  the  United  States 
should  be  restricted  to  a  single  period  of  six  years,"  raises 
two  questions  :  that  of  the  single  term  as  against  the  reelec- 
tion, and  that  of  six  years  as  against  any  other  number  of 
years.  "American  cities  should  own  their  water  supply," 
is  hardly  a  debatable  question  ;  it  would  be  too  difficult  to 
maintain  the  negative. 

There  are  other  dangers  to  be  avoided.  Such  a  question 
as  "  Every  American  city  should  own  its  own  water  sup- 
ply," should  be  avoided,  since  the  negative  need  only  find 


PRELIMINARIES  229 

one  city  which  has  better  reasons  for  a  privately  owned 
supply.  "  The  size  of  the  United  States  army  should  be 
increased,"  is  a  dangerous  statement  in  that  technically  the 
affirmative  side  wins  if  it  be  proved  that  ever  so  slight  an 
increase  is  necessary. 

It  is  usually  understood,  in  the  case  of  such  a  question 
as  "  American  cities  should  acquire  their  own  street-car 
systems,"  that  the  affirmative  must  prove  the  resolution 
true  of  most  American  cities  (or  of  American  cities  as  a 
class),  and  that  the  steps  involved  in  the  acquisition  would 
,  j  begin  at  once  and  be  completed  as  soon  as  practicable. 

Before  deciding^on-  a  proposed  question  then,  the  debater 
should  see_-.that  it  is  interesting,  important,  affirmative 
(usually),  definite,  single,  and  debatable. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Applying  the  above  tests,  criticize  the  topic  and  the  wordingW 
of  each  of  the  following  propositions  as  subjects  for  debates,  and  ' 
put  each  into  acceptable  form  : 

1.  Swimming  is  a  better  sport  than  rowing  or  skating.  (/^., 

2.  A  business  man  does  not  need  a  college  education. 

3.  Strikes  are  detrimental  to  the  workingman. 

4.  Good  roads  are  a  necessity. 

5.  The  way  President  Roosevelt  acquired  the  canal  zone. 

6.  Vivisection. 

7.  The  extension  of  commerce  will  end  wars. 

8.  The  profession  of  the  teacher  is  nobler  than  that  of  the  lawyer. 

9.  The  policy  of  the  United  States  toward  Cuba  is  justifiable. 

10.  The  Philippines  should  be  promised  their  independence  within 
ten  years. 

II.  Every  student  should  choose  his  occupation  before  reaching  the 
age  of  sixteen. 

12.  Coasting  on  the  streets  should  be  more  carefully  regulated  than 
it  is  at  the  present  time. 


230  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

2.  Frame  a  debatable  proposition  on  each  of  the  following 
topics : 

— 1.  Child  labor.  6.  Playgrounds.  -    " 

2.  The  street-car  system 7.  Athletics. 

3.  The  tariff.  8.  The  war. 

4.  The  trusts.  "^^9.  Aviation.  ^_ 

5.  The  railroads.  10.  Automobiles. 

The  Introduction :  Analyzing  the  Subject.  Before  the 
argument  can  begin,  the  real  significance  of  the  question 
must  be  understood.  The  debater  must  therefore  analyze 
the  proposition ;  that  is,  he  must  carefully  examine  the 
wording,  and  must  study  to  find  out  the  full  meaning  of 
the  question.  This  study  will  make  clear  to  him  what  is 
meant  by  the  question  and  what  is  involved  in  it.  And  if 
he  is  to  be  the  first  speaker,  he  must  give  the  audience  the 
benefit  of  the  analysis,  so  that  they  too  will  know  exactly 
what  the  proposition  means. 

Let  us  now  note  the  steps  in  analyzing  a  question,  and 
let  us  assume  that  in  the  ordinary  speech  each  of  these 
steps  will  correspond  to  one  of  the  topics  of  the  introduction. 

1 .  The  Opening.  The  introduction  may  open  with  one  or  more  sen- 
tences to  win  the  interest  of  the  hearers.  The  speaker  may  call  atten- 
tion to  the  timeliness  or  importance  of  the  question,  or  to  the  great 
effect  a  decision  will  have.  Suppose  the  question  is,  "  The  Monroe 
Doctrine  should  be  continued."  Unless  the  question  has  been  pre- 
viously stated,  the  speaker  must  announce  it.  This  may  be  done  at  the 
outset  or  after  the  first  step  has  been  stated.  The  speaker  may  word 
the  first  step  as  follows : 

The  purpose  of  this  debate  is  to  examine  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  the 
policy  of  almost  a  century  of  our  national  diplomacy.  No  subject  can 
command  a  more  serious  consideration,  for,  upon  the  decision  of  the 
United  States  to  maintain  or  discard  this  policy  depends  the  good  of  our 
country,  the  welfare  of  the  southern  republics,  and  the  peace  of  the  world. 


PRELIMINARIES  231 

2.  The  History.  It  will  often  be  necessary  to  tell  briefly  the  main 
historical  facts  of  the  subject.  Thus  one  might  tell  of  the  revolts  against 
Spain  in  the  southern  countries,  of  the  formation  of  the  Holy  Alliance 
to  help  Spain,  of  the  origin  of  the  Doctrine,  and  of  the  various  occasions 
upon  which  it  has  been  used. 

3.  Definitions.  Some  of  the  words  or  phrases  in  the  proposition  may 
need  defining.  Dictionary  definitions  are  not  always  helpful,  for  they 
define  disconnected  words,  while  the  words  in  the  proposition  have  a 
special  context.  Thus  the  dictionary  would  be  useless  for  the  words '  small ' 
and '  large '  in  the  question,  "  The  small  high  school  is  better  for  the  pupil 
than  the  large  high  school."  The  best  definiuons  are  (a)  those  derived 
from  the  writings  of  experts  on  the  subject,  {l>)  those  which  give  exam- 
ples of  the  idea,  and  {c)  those  which  show  the  parts,  characteristics, 
or  mode  of  operation.  For  example,  the  terms  '  small '  and  '  large,'  in 
referring  to  high  schools,  may  be  explained  by  giving  examples  of  small 
and  large  high  schools  in  one's  neighborhood  or  city.  The  Monroe 
Doctrine  may  be  defined  by  reading  passages  from  the  original  docu- 
ment, and  by  quoting  from  the  four  or  five  statements  officially  given 
by  subsequent  presidents  and  their  secretaries.  The  term  '  irrigating 
system  '  may  be  defined  by  telling  of  its  various  parts  :  the  water  sources, 
the  reservoir,  the  dam,  the  aqueduct,  the  distributing  system.  '  Indus- 
trial school '  may  be  defined  by  describing  the  equipment  and  the 
activities  of  such  an  institution. 

4.  The  Real  Question.  The  exact  meaning  of  the  question  may  now 
be  restated  in  simpler  words  and  the  real  difference  of  opinion  be  made 
plain.  Thus,  "  The  real  question  is.  Shall  we  continue  our  objections 
to  interference  by  European  powers  in  the  affairs  of  the  western  hemi- 
sphere? The  affirmative  maintains "  that  we  should  continue  this 
objection ;  the  negative,  that  we  should  discontinue  it." 

To  show  just  what  the  exact  issue  is,  it  is  often  necessary  to  state 
the  points  which  should  be  Ic/i  out  of  the  discussion,  for  example : 
(a)  all  questions  which  are  irrelevant  to  the  main  question ;  (b)  all  ques- 
tions agreed  upon  or  waived  by  both  sides.    Thus : 

We  are  not  concerned  in  this  debate  with  our  relations  with  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  nor  with  Mexican  affairs  except  as  they  involve  Euro- 
pean powers.  It  is  apjreed  by  both  sides  that  our  interest  in  the  Philippine 
Islands  has  violated  the  original  intent  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine;  but  it 
has  been  agreed  to  waive  any  question  of  the  bearing  of  this  fact  upon 


232  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

the  present  status  of  the  Doctrine.  Thus  the  question  is  narrowed  down 
to  this  :  Shall  European  nations  be  allowed  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of 
the  western  hemisphere  ? 

5 .  The  Issues  Involved.  Finally  and  most  important  —  and  this 
must  be  a  part  of  the  introduction  even  if  nothing  else  seems  necessary 
—  the  speaker  must  point  out  clearly  the  different  phases  of  the  dis- 
cussion. These  phases  are  called  the  issues,  and  the  step  in  the 
analysis  is  called  finding  the  issues.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  finding 
the  issues  of  an  argument  is  practically  the  same  as  making  an  outline. 
We  have  discussed  outhning  in  Chapter  VIII,  and  in  Chapter  II  we 
have  shown  how  the  material  for  a  simple  argument  may  be  arranged 
under  several  heads.  Here  we  shall  illustrate  the  process  of  finding  the 
issues  in  the  case  of  other  arguments. 

If  two  boys  from  different  cities  were  talking  about  their  schools, 
each  arguing  that  his  was  the  better,  with  what  facts  would  their  con- 
versation be  concerned?  If  a  third  person  were  listening,  would  he  not 
hear  them  speak  of  grounds,  buildings,  equipment,  courses,  students, 
teachers,  athletics.?  These  topics,  then,  would  show  at  once  that  the 
issues  were  as  follows :  Which  school  has  the  better  grounds  ?  which 
the  better  buildings?  which  the  better  equipment?  etc.  Again,  one  who 
proposes  the  erection  of  a  new  school  building  must  discuss  some  such 
questions  as  these:  Is  the  present  building  satisfactory?  Is  it  practi- 
cable at  this  time  to  provide  the  money?  Is  there  any  other  solution 
to  the  problem?  Will  the  new  building  be  of  great  benefit?  And,  to 
recur  to  the  question  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  the  issues  might  be 
stated :  Is  the  Monroe  Doctrine  in  accord  with  sound  international 
relations?  Is  there  danger  connected  with  it?  Has  it  benefited  the 
United  States  and  other  countries?    Will  the  benefits  continue? 

To  find  the  issues,  therefore,  the  student  tries  to  determine  what 
are  the  questions  which  must  be  answered  in  order  to  prove  or  dis- 
prove  the  question.  These  he  presents  to  his  audience  in  the  intro- 
duction. The  sequence  of  the  issues  will  be  discussed  below,  under 
the  topic,  "  The  Brief  of  the  Argument." 

6.  The  Points  to  be  Proved.  The  issues  having  been  stated,  the 
speaker  must  next  indicate  the  answers  which  he  intends  to  make  to 
these  issues.  For  example,  the  statement,  "  We  maintain  first,  that  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  is  in  accord  with  sound  international  relations  ;  second, 
that  there  is  no  danger  connected  with  it ; "  etc.,  marks  the  end  of  the 


PRELIMINARIES  233 

introduction,  and  the  speaker  then  proceeds  to  argue  the  first  point. 
That  is,  he  tries  to  prove  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  is  in  accord  with 
sound  international  relations. 

Up  to  this  point  in  the  speech  there  should  be  no 
argument  given ;  the  introduction  should  contain  only 
explanation,  with  possibly  a  little  narration  and  description. 
In  fact,  the  introduction  to  an  argument  should  be  so  fair 
that  those  who  uphold  the  opposite  opinion  will  agree  that 
everything  said  is  true.  In  other  words,  there  should  be  no 
dispute  as  to  the  importance  or  the  history  of  the  question, 
the  meaning  of  the  words,  the  real  issue  in  the  debate,  or 
the  statement  of  the  issues  that  the  question  raises.  The 
difference  of  opinion  comes  in  the  answer  to  these  issues. 

In  assembling  material  for  an  argument  or  debate,  the 
data  for  the  introduction  will  be  collected  at  the  same  time 
as  the  argumentative  ammunition.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
complete  the  introduction  before  the  argument  is   studied. 

The  above  six  steps  should  be  followed  in  the  prelimi- 
nary preparation  for  any  argument.  It  will  not  always  be 
necessary,  however,  to  show  every  step  in  the  introduction 
as  it  is  delivered  to  the  audience.  For  example,  in  the 
case  of  the  question,  "  The  use  of  toy  cap  pistols  should 
be  prohibited  by  city  ordinance,"  it  might  be  best  to  omit 
any  mention  of  the  importance  or  history  of  the  question, 
because  these  are  already  sufficiently  known  ;  to  omit  defi- 
nitions, as  being  unnecessary ;  and  to  omit  the  restatement 
of  the  issue  because  it  is  already  so  clear.  The  introduction, 
then,  wcjuld  consist  of  the  steps  numbered  5  and  6  above. 

All  introductions  must  be  greatly  condensed.  In  a  ten- 
minute  debating  speech  not  more  than  three  or  four  minutes 
should  be  devoted  to  the  whole  introduction. 


234  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

EXERCISES 

1.  This  exercise  is  based  on  the  step  numbered  i  above.  If 
a  debate  were  to  be  given  on  one  of  the  subjects  listed  below, 
decide  what  should  be  said  to  arouse  interest.  Prepare  a  memo- 
randum of  notes  and  practice  this  part  of  the  introduction. 

1.  Goods  made  by  child  labor  should  be  denied  interstate  commerce. 

2.  The  president  should  be  elected  by  direct  vote. 

3.  The  unanimous  verdict  in  jury  trials  should  not  be  required. 

4.  Student  cooperation  in  school  government  should  be  greatly 
extended. 

5.  Fourth  of  July  should  be  celebrated  without  fireworks. 

2.  Choose  one  of  the  topics  listed  below,  and  decide  what 
should  be  said  on  the  history  of  the  subject.  Look  up  the  subject 
in  the  library,  and  take  notes.  Practice  your  talk  aloud,  and  come 
to  class  prepared  to  give  this  part  of  the  introduction.    Be  brief. 

1.  The  recall  of  judges.  6.  The  condition  of  the  roads. 

2.  Capital  punishment.  7.  Conservation. 

3.  Income  tax  in  the  United  States.       8.  Fireproof  buildings. 

4.  Immigration.  9.  The  Senate. 

5.  The  building  of  a  playground.  10.  The  Democratic  party. 


3.  Write  an  exact  definition  of  three  of  the  terms  below.  Make 
a  careful  search  for  the  proper  definition,  using  the  reference 
books  in  the  Hbrary,  including  dictionaries,  encyclopedias,  reports, 
etc.    Decide  carefully  what  form  of  definition  to  use. 

1.  Local  option.  11.  Labor  unions. 

2.  The  small  college.  12.  Skilled  labor. 

3.  Protective  tariff.  13.  Tenements. 

4.  Neutrality.  14.  Sabotage. 

5.  Arbitration.  15.  Freedom  of  the  seas. 

6.  Crime.  16.  Progressive. 

7.  The  alien.  17.  Reactionary. 

8.  The  yellow  race.  18.  Newspapers. 

9.  Aviation.  19.  Socialism. 

10.  Education.  20.  International  law. 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  235 

4.  Turn  to  the  list  of  debating  questions  in  Appendix  II. 
Read  propositions  14,  16,  17,  20,  21,  22,  24,  28,  32,  and  37  in 
section  A.  Choose  one  for  careful  consideration.  Decide  what 
the  real  issue  is,  and  practice  saying  it  aloud,  using  your  own 
words  and  restating  the  question  in  simple,  forcible  language. 
Decide  also  what  irrelevant  or  waived  issues  might  be  wrongly 
brought  into  the  discussion,  and  practice  the  sentences  which 
would  show  that  they  are  not  to  be  considered.  Give  the  state- 
ments in  class. 

5.  Turn  to  the  propositions  for  debate,  and  read  3,  8,  12,  15, 
25,  33,  35,  36,  39,  and  42  in  section  A.  Select  one  of  them  for 
special  study.  Try  to  find  the  issues  involved  in  proving  or  dis- 
proving this  proposition.  Comparisons  and  criticisms,  and  votes 
to  find  out  the  preference  of  the  whole  class,  should  bring  out  a 
satisfactor}^  set  of  questions  for  each  proposition. 

6.  Suggestions  for  an  introduction  to  an  argument  on  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  have  been  given  throughout  the  steps  explained 
above.  Write  on  cards  an  outline  of  a  complete  introduction  for 
an  argument  on  that  question.  Practice  this  introduction,  and 
give  it  in  class. 

7.  Prepare  and  deliver  an  introduction  to  an  argument,  choosing 
your  own  subject. 

II.    BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  > 

Collecting  the  Evidence.  Material  gathered  for  the  argu- 
ment is  called  evidence.  Evidence  consists  of  the  facts  on 
which  the  proof  of  a  proposition  is  based.  Thus  a  student 
who  wishes  to  prove  that  the  city  should  build  a  subway 
cites  as  evidence  certain  facts,  such  as  that  the  street  cars 
and  streets  are  overcrowded,  that  necessary  funds  can  be 
provided,  and  that  other  cities  have  reaped  great  benefits 
from  subways.    These  facts  make  up  the  evidence. 


236  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

We  have  to  consider  three  things  in  reference  to  evi- 
dence :  (i)  where  to  look  for  material;  (2)  how  to  know 
which  items  are  of  value  ;  (3)  how  to  record  them.  We 
shall  now  proceed  to  answer  these  questions. 

The  Sources  of  Evidence.  The  most  common  source  of 
argumentative  evidence  is  printed  material,  and  the  debater 
will  chiefly  depend  on  such  books,  magazines,  and  reports 
as  the  following  : 

REFERENCES  FOR  ARGUMENTATIVE  MATERIAL 

Bliss.    New  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform. 

Lalor.  Cyclopedia  of  Political  Science,  Political  Economy,  and 
United  States  History. 

Earned.    History  for  Ready  Reference. 

New  International  Encyclopedia. 

Annuals  :  Statistical  Abstract ;  World  Almanac ;  Statesman's  Year- 
book ;  American  Yearbook. 

Magazines,  indexed  in  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature. 

Handbooks  for  Debaters. 

Reports :  Senate,  House  of  Representatives,  Congressional  Record, 
Departments,  Census,  State  or  City,  Associations  and  Societies. 

Many  state  universities  and  other  colleges  have  officers 
who  prepare  bibliographies  on  important  questions,  copies 
of  which  may  be  obtained  on  application.  Students  should 
learn  the  essentials  of  the  system  used  for  classifying 
library  books. 

How  to  read  for  a  Debate.  The  first  reading  for  a  debate 
should  be  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  a  wide  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject.  Such  a  broad  outlook  is  obtained 
primarily  from  histories,  textbooks,  and  encyclopedias.  In 
looking  up  a  subject,  try  all  the  likely  headings  in  order  to 
be  sure  to  find  complete  information.  For  example,  in  seek- 
ing material  about  the  tariff  one  should  look  also  under  the 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  237 

words  'free  trade,'  'protection,'  'customs,'  'duties,'  and 
'  taxation.'  After  getting  general  information  on  the  ques- 
tion, the  student  may  commence  his  special  reading.  Sta- 
tistics and  reports  may  be  studied,  and  exact,  minute  details 
mastered.  Care  should  be  taken  to  learn  the  latest  thought 
on  the  subject  as  given  in  the  magazines. 

Suppose  we  are  discussing  the  question,  Resolved,  that  the 
United  States  is  justified  in  the  manner  in  which  it  acquired  the 
canal  zone.  One  might  go  first  to  the  histories  to  familiarize 
himself  with  the  treaties,  the  activities  of  other  countries,  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  two  routes,  the  negotiations  with  Colombia,  the 
Panama  revolution,  and  the  agreement  with  Panama.  He  will 
then  have  the  broad  facts  on  which  to  base  the  argument.  Let 
him  next  read  reports  of  the  State  Department,  together  with 
reports  of  congressional  committees  and  of  debates  in  Congress. 
These  will  give  him  accurate  information  as  to  the  point  of  view 
of  this  country.  If  he  could  obtain  reports  from  Colombia, 
he  might  get  the  opposite  opinions.  Finally,  he  may  turn  to 
magazines.  The  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature,  under 
'  Colombia,'  '  canal,'  '  Panama,'  '  United  States,'  or  '  treaties,'  will 
list  the  magazine  articles  on  these  subjects,  and  the  debater  must 
judge  from  the  titles,  or  by  glancing  through  the  articles  them- 
selves, which  he  will  select  for  reading.  For  the  subject  under  dis- 
cussion, he  should  certainly  read  Colonel  Roosevelt's  articles  in 
justification  of  his  acts  and  also  articles  giving  the  case  for 
Colombia. 

Should  debaters  use  the  handbooks  in  which  material  is 
carefully  collected,  arranged,  recorded,  judged,  and  outlined.? 
Yes.  A  woman  would  be  foolish  to  make  a  pattern  for  a 
dress  if  she  could  find  a  satisfactory  pattern  already  jDre- 
pared.  No  debater  should  grow  to  depend  upon  prepared 
debating  material,  for  in  life  he  will  have  to  put  together 


238  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

arguments  in  which  he  must  do  the  whole  work  himself ; 
but  in  his  practice  there  can  be  no  harm  in  occasionally 
using  another's  work  on  which  to  build.  By  so  doing  the 
student  will  find  himself  well  on  his  way,  and  may  there- 
fore spend  more  time  on  the  advanced  preparation  of 
the  speech. 

Interviewing.  Another  source  of  evidence  is  conversation 
with  persons  who  are  intelligently  interested  in  the  subject. 
Interviews  may  be  arranged  by  letter  or  by  telephone. 
Persons  who  represent  both  opinions  should  be  visited. 
It  is  best  to  have  a  list  of  definite  questions  to  ask.  Besides 
such  formal  conversations,  the  student  should  have  as  many 
talks  as  convenient  with  parents,  teachers,  companions,  and 
other  friends,  asking  questions  which  trouble  him,  and  test- 
ing on  others  the  items  of  evidence  which  occur  to  him. 

Personal  Observation.  In  all  his  study  the  debater  must 
not  underestimate  the  value  of  his  own  observations.  In  the 
case  of  subjects  concerned  with  school  or  city  or  country, 
and  many  others,  the  student  will  be  able  to  study  conditions 
at  first  hand,  and  to  bring  the  result  of  his  investigations 
into  the  argument. 

Thus,  if  a  speaker  is  to  argue  that  his  city  should  purchase 
a  strip  of  land  along  the  river  or  seacoast  for  purposes  of  rec- 
reation, he  might  collect  valuable  evidence  by  making  an  investi- 
gation of  present  facilities  for  boating,  bathing,  and  the  like. 
He  might  then  determine,  from  his  own  experiences  and  from 
observation,  how  people  substitute  other  and  less  wholesome 
amusements  for  recreation  that  would  become  possible  if  water 
were  accessible.  Finally,  he  might  look  over  the  situation  for  the 
purpose  of  finding  a  suitable  location  for  the  proposed  recreation 
grounds.  Thus  his  own  observations  would  have  furnished  him 
valuable  evidence.  ^ 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  239 

We  have  seen  thus  far  that  the  material  out  of  which 
an  argument  is  to  be  built  is  called  evidence,  and  that  the 
sources  of  evidence  are  three  :  reading,  conversation,  and 
personal  observation. 

Testing  the  Evidence.  In  collecting  the  material  for  the 
argument  the  student  must  constantly  use  his  judgment  in 
deciding  which  of  the  items  that  he  reads,  hears,  or  observes 
are  good  evidence,  and  which  are  of  little  or  no  value. 

In  the  first  place,  he  must  select  and  use  only  such  evidence 
as  applies  directly  and  definitely  to  the  issue.  All  other  material, 
no  matter  how  interesting,  must  be  ruled  out.  Thus  evidence 
about  canal  slides  would  have  little  bearing  on  the  question  of 
our  treatment  of  Colombia  in  acquiring  the  canal,  and  it  should 
therefore  be  discarded. 

We  have  already  seen  that  trustworthy  definidons  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  writings  of  experts.  The  first  five  references  on 
the  list  above  are  generally  recognized  as  giving  reliable  informa- 
tion, though  it  is  always  well  to  judge  the  standing  of  the  author 
of  any  particular  article.  Reports  must  be  critically  examined, 
as  they  may  be  biased.  The  student  must  know  who  made  the 
report,  how  the  information  was  gathered,  and  whether  the  pur- 
pose of  the  report  was  to  furnish  information  or  to  prove  a  case. 
A  congressional  committee,  for  example,  a  majority  of  whom  are 
Democrats,  may  issue  a  report  on  the  cost  of  producing  a  certain 
article  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  ;  but  this  report  may  be 
biased  by  the  desire  to  help  the  Democratic  argument  on  the 
tariff  question,  this  argument  being  that  the  difference  in  cost  is 
small.  Similarly,  the  value  of  reports  of  various  societies  must  be 
considered  in  the  light  of  the  membership,  the  purpose  of  the 
society,  and  the  manner  of  compiling  the  report. 

Magazine  articles,  although  they  furnish  splendid  evidence,  must 
be  critically  reviewed.  It  is  worse  than  useless  to  rely  on  the 
mere  fact  that  a  certain  opinion  is  found  in  a  magazine,  no  matter 


240  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

how  reputable  it  may  be.  Some  magazines  make  it  a  point  to 
have  articles  on  both  sides  of  an  important  question.  In  case  a 
particular  article  is  written  by  a  recognized  authority  on  the  sub- 
ject, it  may  be  referred  to  as  having  the  weight  of  expert  opinion. 
In  all  other  cases  the  opinions  in  magazines  have  no  more  weight 
than  those  in  newspapers.  However,  they  all  show  the  debater 
possible  lines  of  argument  which  he  may  follow  if  he  can  secure 
adequate  evidence. 

The  most  effective  evidence  is  that  which  the  opponents  recog- 
nize as  true.  If  the  student  can  succeed  in  finding  enough  of 
such  evidence,  actual  argument  may  be  dispensed  with.  Suppose 
a  speaker  were  trying  to  induce  a  city  council  to  purchase  land 
and  erect  houses  for  workingmen.  He  might  present  as  evidence 
the  experience  of  the  German  city  of  Ulm,  and  then  show  clearly 
how  the  land  and  the  funds  could  be  obtained  in  his  own  city. 
He  would  not  then  need  to  draw  any  conclusions,  for  the  listeners 
themselves  would  be  led  to  ask,  "  Why  don't  we  do  that  ? "  The 
best  kind  of  argumentative  speech  contains  little  real  argument, 
but  a  great  many  indisputable  experiences.  The  value  of  facts 
and  examples  is  shown  in  this  statement  recently  made:  "The 
modern  man  does  not  argue ;  he  illustrates."  The  accurate  state- 
ment of  known  facts  and  of  well-selected  illustrations  of  the  truth 
to  be  established  inevitably  lead  the  hearers  to  the  conclusion 
desired. 

To  sum  up  the  tests,  good  evidence  must  be  applicable 
to  the  issue,  and  must  come  from  sources  which  are  well 
qualified  to  give  facts  or  opinions,  which  are  not  prejudiced 
toward  either  side,  and  which  are  recognized  as  trustworthy. 

The  fact  that  no  evidence  to  prove  a  particular  contention  can  be 
found,  sometimes  is  good  evidence  that  the  proposition  is  not  true. 
Suppose  it  is  contended  that  the  abolition  of  capital  punishment  would 
increase  murder.  If  this  proposition  is  true,  the  statistics  of  crime  in 
the  states  and  nations  which  have  abolished  capital  punishment  should 
exhibit  a  noticeable  increase  in  the  number  of  homicides  directly  after 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  241 

the  abolition  of  the  death  penalty.  If  no  such  increase  is  shown,  the 
contention  that  the  number  of  murders  would  increase  can  hardly  be 
maintained. 

^  Recording  the  Evidence.  Evidence  from  all  sources,  — 
reading,  conversation,  and  observation,  —  if  it  promises  to 
satisfy  the  tests,  should  be  recorded  in  convenient  form. 
Proper  recording  from  the  start  will  save  a  great  amount 
of  labor  when  one  comes  to  arrange  the  material  for  the 
speech.  The  first  requisite  is  a  supply  of  paper  of  con- 
venient size  :  the  quarter  sheet  of  foolscap  or  of  typewriter 
paper  is  satisfactory.  A  space  should  be  left  blank  at  the 
top  of  each  sheet,  so  that  the  paper  may  receive  its  proper 
label  and  numbering  after  the  complete  outline  is  prepared. 
(When  the  first  evidence  is  being  collected,  it  may  not  be 
possible  to  tell  in  advance  under  which  head  each  item 
will  come.)  The  second  line  should  bear  the  title  of  the 
particular  article  which  contains  the  evidence.  Next  should 
come  the  author's  name  and  the  name  of  the  book  or  maga- 
zine or  other  source  of  information,  with  the  exact  reference. 
Finally,  comes  the  evidence  itself,  either  written  out  as  an 
exact  quotation,  or  condensed  to  give  the  substance  of  the 
thought.  The  papers  should  be  written  on  one  side,  in  ink, 
and  no  sheet  should  bear  more  than  one  item  of  evidence. 

The  "  Form  for  Recording  Evidence,  with  Examples," 
shows  how  the  cards  may  be  filled  out. 

Arranging  the  Evidence.  With  the  evidence  collected  and 
properly  recorded,  the  slips  of  paper  may  be  arranged  in 
order.    This  is  done  as  explained  on  pages  126-129. 

Using  Graphic  Methods.  We  have  spoken  in  previous 
chapters  of  tlic  use  of  diagrams  and  drawings  in  speak- 
ing, and  we  have  seen  how  effective  they  are.     Debating 


242 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 


evidence  may  often  be  put  into  a  similarly  graphic  form.  In 
a  debate  on  the  independence  of  the  Philippines,  a  student 
used  a  colored  map  of  the  Islands  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  that  there  are  eighty  or  more  different  tribes  and 
three  different  religions  among  the  people.  Another  stu- 
dent used  a  chart  with  six  or  more  heavy  black  lines  of 
different  lengths,  to  represent  the  proportion  of  the  popu- 
lation attending  school  in  the  Philippines  as  compared 
with  similar  figures  for  the  republics  of  South  and  Central 
America.  Whenever  a  bit  of  evidence  can  be  recorded  in 
graphic  form,  the  thought  will  be  made  more  effective. 


FORM  FOR  RECORDING  EVIDENCE,  WITH  EXAMPLES 

American  Cities  should  main- 
Form  TAIN  Employment  Agencies 


Outline  numbers. 

Debate  topic  the  item 

concerns. 

Title  of  article,  chapter 

or  book. 

Author. 

Source. 

The    quotation    or 

thought 

forming  the  evidence. 

Individuals  cannot  solve  the 
problem. 

"  Unemployment,  a  World  Prob- 
lem, and  the  Congress  at 
Ghent." 

Katharine  Coman. 

T/te  Snr%>ey,  Vol.  XXXI,  No. 
22;   Feb.  28,  1914;  p.  667. 

"  The  causes  of  unemploy- 
ment are  not  merely  individual, 
—  physical  incapacity,  lack  of 
training,  inefficiency,  and  un- 
willingness to  work,  — ■  they  are 
usually  general  and  quite  be- 
yond the  control  of  the  indi- 
vidual workman." 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT 


243 


Los  Angeles  Harbor  should 
BE  Fortified 


\'-2 

Useless  to  fortify. 

Answer  to  our  questicfh,  Would 
such  fortification  protect  the 
city  adequately? 

Colonel ,  of  the  U.S.  Army. 


Letter  to  us. 

Substance  — 

Not  unless  a  chain  of  forts 
were  placed  along  the  coast; 
otherwise  an  enemy  could  land 
and  approach  the  city  from  the 
rear. 


Athletics  furnish  as  Valua- 
ble Mental   Exercise  as  do 
THE  Usual  Studies 


I^'-3 
Self-control. 

Introduction  to  "  Practical  Track 
and  Field  Athletics,"  p.  1 2. 

Graham  (Harvard  instructor) 
and  Clark  (Boston  School 
Dept.) 

Substance  — 

Track  and  field  athletics  are 
thoroughly  democratic  in  char- 
acter, and  teach  a  man  how  to 
control  himself  and  how  to  con- 
duct himself  toward  his  fellows. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Turn  to  the  questions  in  Appendix  II  and  read  the  following 
in  B :  i,  2,  4,  13,  14,  15,  16,  20,  23,  and  26.  Select  one  of  them 
for  study.  Decide  first  what  are  the  best  sources  of  evidence  for 
your  proposition :  what  reading  to  do,  what  people  to  interview, 
what  personal  investigations  to  make.  Go  to  the  library  and  make 
out  a  list  of  references  for  reading.  Then,  using  the  complete  list, 
prepare  yourself  to  explain  to  the  class  how  you  would  go  about 
studying  for  the  argument.  Let  them  criticize  your  plans,  compare 
their  lists  with  yours,  and  discuss  which  plans  are  best.  Those 
who  select  the  same  subject  may  meet  in  committee  and  draft 
a  composite  set  of  directions. 

(This  exercise  may  be  repeated,  each  student  choosing  a  subject  of 
his  own.    Or  it  may  first  be  broken  up  into  its  several  parts  to  make 


244  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

four  different  exercises:  (i)  plans  for  general  reading,  (2)  plans  for 
special  reading,  (3)  plans  for  obtaining  evidence  from  persons  by  inter- 
views or  letters,  and  (4)  plans  for  personal  observations.) 

2.  Test  the  items  of  possible  evidence  listed  below,  for  the 
purpose  of  finding  out  whether  each  satisfies  the  requirements. 
Be  able  to  give  good  reasons  for  your  opinions,  and  come  to  class 
prepared  to  tell  the  result  of  your  study.       • 

(The  exercise  may  be  divided,  if  the  class  or  the  teacher  so  decides, 
each  student  handling  one  or  more  of  the  statements.) 

1.  From  personal  observation  I  know  that  there  are  but  three  good 
grocery  stores  on  this  street. 

2.  Robert  Evans,  the  late  admiral,  was  in  favor  of  fortifying  the 
Panama  Canal. 

3.  Four  thousand  citizens  of  San  Francisco  have  petitioned  Con- 
gress to  have  San  Francisco  bay  dredged. 

4.  Carnegie  states  that  a  tariff  on  steel  is  no  longer  necessary. 

5.  Colonel    Roosevelt   says    that   practice    in    shooting  will   be  a 
benefit  to  schoolboys. 

6.  Judge  Lindsey  says  that  economic  conditions  are  largely  respon- 
sible for  the  crimes  of  children. 

7.  Victor  Berger  says  that  the  protective  tariff  does  not  help  the 
workingman. 

8.  Secretary  Redfield  says  that  if  the  American  nianufaccurer  will 
keep  up  to  date  he  will  not  need  a  protective  tariff. 

9.  Arnold  Bennett,  the  English  author,  says  that  New  York  City 
is  attractive. 

10.  The  county  assessor  says  that  the  single  tax  would  be  unfair. 

3.  Study  the  statements  given  below,  for  the  purpose  of  decid- 
ing whether  they  offer  any  real  evidence.  Do  they  make  state- 
ments which  appeal  to  most  persons  as  true,  or  do  they  make 
unsupported  statements  which  need  further  evidence  ?  Come  to 
class  prepared  to  give  your  criticisms. 

1.  A  person  who  intends  to  choose  a  business  career  should  begin 
at  the  bottom. 

2.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  world  is  getting  better. 

3.  A  house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand. 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  245 

4.  The  important  part  of  roofing  is  its  waterproofing. 

5.  Our  advertisers  tell  the  truth. 

6.  A  healthy  baby  is  a  good  baby  every  time. 

7.  Soap  is  a  universal  necessity. 

8.  A  good  lock  is  your  best  protection. 

9.  Advertising  talks. 
10.  Holding  public  ofiice  is  a  thankless  job. 

4.  Choose  your  own  proposition  for  an  argument,  decide  on 
the  possible  sources  of  evidence,  and  bring  to  class  five  slips  con- 
taining items  of  evidence.  In  preparing  the  five  slips,  get  a  reliable 
item  from  each  of  the  following  sources:  (i)  a  book  of  general 
reference,  (2)  a  report,  (3)  a  magazine,  (4)  a  conversation  or  letter, 
(5)  a  personal  investigation. 

5.  Study  the  following  facts  and  figures.  Then  select  one  of 
the  items  for  graphic  representation.  Consider  all  the  possible 
ways  —  map,  chart,  curve,  lines,  blocks,  picture,  or  diagram. 
Make  the  representation  large  enough  to  be  seen  by  all.  Make 
use  of  this  in  a  short  talk. 

1.  Japan's  commerce  in  1 900  :  2.  Sugar  per  capita  used : 

United  States     24  per  cent  1875      .     .     .     43  pounds 

Great  Britain 
China  . 
All  others 

3.  Approximate  area  of  certain  states  : 

Massachusetts 8000  square  miles 

New  York 49,000  square  miles 

Virginia 43.0°°  square  miles 

Pennsylvania 45'000  square  miles 

Rhode  Island 1000  square  miles 

Oregon 97,000  square  miles 

4.  The  result  of  the  Mexican  War,  1 846-1 847,  was  that  the  United 
States  acquired  over  half  of  Mexico. 

5.  Street  cars  can  easily  be  built  so  that  only  one  step  for  entering 
will  be  necessary. 


I  7  per  cent 

1885   . 

48  pounds 

1 3  per  cent 

1895   . 

63  pounds 

46  per  cent 

1905   . 

72  pounds 

1910 

.  80  pounds 

246  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE  ^ 


d 


Reasoning.  We  have  spoken  of  the  collection  of  signifi- 
cant facts  and  experiences  as  being  the  gathering  of  evi- 
dence, and  we  have  shown  that  the  most  effective  evidence 
is  found  by  obtaining  facts  that  are  so  convincing  that  they 
cannot  be  denied,  and  so  pertinent  and  clear  that  the  hearers 
themselves  will  be  forced  to  draw  the  conclusion  desired  by 
the  speaker.  We  have  tried  to  distinguish  between /<a:^/j  and 
reasons,  calling  the  former  evidence,  and  the  latter  reasoning. 
In  actual  practice,  however,  much  of  the  material  we  gather 
for  evidence  contains  also  a  great  many  conclusions  and 
opinions  which  can  hardly  be  called  facts  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  word.  Thus  evidence  and  reasoning  are  apt  to  be 
bound  together  in  much  of  the  material  gathered  for  an 
argument  or  debate. 

Even  if  the  cards  of  evidence  were  full  of  reasons,  it 
would  still  be  necessary  to  bind  together  the  several  minor 
conclusions.  We  need,  therefore,  to  know  something  of  the 
processes  of  reasoning. 

While  any  person  may  reason,  and  reason  well,  without 
knowing  very  much  about  the  process  by  which  he  draws 
conclusions,  the  few  explanations  which  follow  will  prove 
helpful  in  systematizing  our  practice.  They  will  show  also 
how  to  make  an  argument  clearer  to  the  audience,  and  how 
to  go  about  the  proof  of  a  proposition  from  several  different 
points  of  view. 

We  shall  first  put  into  the  briefest  possible  space  an 
explanation  of  each  kind  of  reasoning ;  next,  we  shall  give 
illustrations  of  each  ;  then  we  shall  discuss  how  each  may 
be  tested ;  and  finally,  we  shall  see  how  each  method  of 
reasoning  may  be  applied  to  an  actual  debate. 

There  are  five  chief  kinds  of  reasoning : 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  247 

.  THE   KINDS  OF  REASONING 

1.  From  known  facts  to  the  general  law  about,  or  the  cause  of, 
these  facts.    Induction. 

2.  From  a  general  law  or  cause  to  a  resulting  fact  or  effect. 
Deduction. 

3.  From  an  example  either  of  the  operation  of  a  law,  or  the 
effect  of  a  cause,  to  the  law  or  cause  itself.    Example. 

4.  From  an  effect  of  some  cause  to  another  effect  of  the  same 
cause.    &gn. 

5.  From  a  resemblance  one  thing  bears  to  another  to  the 
operation  of  a  similar  law  upon  them  both.    Analogy. 

These  modes  of  reasoning  are  not  wholly  separate ;  we 
shall  see  that  the  first  two  are  primary,  and  the  others 
secondar}\    Let  us  now  examine  and  illustrate  each. 

r  1.  Induction  is  the  method  of  reasoning  common  to  natural 
^  science.  For  example,  we  have  seen  that  when  objects  are  lying 
in  the  sun  those  that  are  black  seem  to  get  more  heated  than 
those  which  are  lighter  in  color.  And  if  we  have  examined  enough 
of  such  objects,  we  finally  come  to  formulate  the  law  that  black 
objects  absorb  the  heat  of  the  sun  more  than  do  objects  of  a 
lighter  color. 

We  use  induction  also  when  we  make  a  series  of  observations 
about  the  school  building  and  then  conclude  that  the  present  build- 
ing is  inadequate.  Or  we  collect  wage  statistics  from  many  boys 
who  have  gone  to  work  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade,  and  from 
many  others  who  have  continued  their  education  through  the  high 
school,  and  from  a  study  of  these  we  conclude  that  the  higher 
education  is  the  cause  of  greater  earning  power.  Thus  induction 
leads  to  general  laws. 
^y  2.  Deduction  is  used  when  we  call  to  mind  such  a  general  law 
as  that  the  French  are  leaders  in  science  and  invention,  and  from 
this   law  conclude  that  it  will  pay  a  scientist  to  learn  to  read 


248  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

French.  We  use  deduction  when  we  assume  that  poverty  exists 
in  all  large  American  cities,  and  conclude  that  if  our  city  grows  big, 
it  too  will  have  problems  of  poverty  to  face.  Again,  we  use  the 
same  method  when  we  try  to  show  that  if  a  new  school  building 
is  built,  certain  benefits  will  result.  Thus  deduction  leads  to  specific 
truths,  while  induction  leads  to  general  laws. 

3.  Argument  from  example  is  a  kind  of  induction  in  which  a 
striking  instance  or  illustration  is  used  to  prove  a  general  law  or 
cause.  Thus  a  person  might  show  a  beautiful  picture  painted  by 
a  Japanese  artist,  and  use  this  to  prove  the  artistic  abilities  of  the 
Japanese.  Again,  one  might  instance  the  success  of  Dayton  with 
the  city-manager  form  of  government  as  a  reason  for  concluding 
that  the  plan  is  a  success.  Example  leads  from  an  important  fact 
to  a  general  law  or  cause. 

4.  Argument  from'  sign  is  a  combination  of  the  two  processes  of 
induction  and  deduction ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  the  successive 
use  of  example  and  deduction.  We  say  that  the  falling  of  the 
barometer  is  a  sign  of  rain.  We  mean  that  the  falling  of  the 
barometer  is  an  example  of  the  operation  of  the  law  that  low  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere  causes  a  falling  of  the  barometer;  and  that 
this  same  condition  of  the  air  also  makes  it  probable  that  rain  will 
fall.  Thus  we  reason  from  one  effect  of  a  law  to  another ;  that 
is,  we  use  an  example  (induction)  to  find  the  law,  and  then  we 
use  deduction  to  find  the  other  effect.  Let  us  examine  one  more 
instance  of  argument  by  sign.  If  Dayton  succeeds  with  the  city- 
manager  plan,  Duluth  ought  to  adopt  it.  This  is  reasoning  by  sign, 
for  Dayton's  success  is  taken  as  a  sign  that  the  plan  is  good  for 
other  cities,  and  then  Duluth  is  reached  by  deduction. 

5.  Argument  from  analogy  is  like  argument  from  sign  because 
we  reason  from  one  effect  to  another ;  but  in  the  case  of  reason- 
ing by  analogy  there  are  two  similar  general  laws,  instead  of  one 
law  back  of  both  effects.  Thus,  if  we  say  that  every  army  has  its 
commander  and  therefore  a  road-building  gang  must  have  a  fore- 
man, we  are  reasoning  that  there  is  a  resemblance  between  the 
characteristics  of  an  army  and  those  of  the  road  builders,  and  that 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  249 

the  need  for  mastery  and  obedience  which  exists  in  the  one  exists 
also  in  the  other.  Again,  we  may  reason  that  since  weeds  spring 
up  on  idle  land,  useless  thoughts  will  spring  up  in  idle  minds. 
The  argument  for  the  city-manager  government  is  reasoning  by 
analogy  —  the  comparison  of  the  business  of  a  city  with  that  of 
a  corporation.  Thus  reasoning  by  analogy  leads  from  a  result  of 
the  operation  of  one  law  to  a  result  of  the  operation  of  a  similar 
law  in  another  field  of  thought. 

The  Tests  of  Reasoning.  Tests  should  be  applied  to  all 
reasoning,  for  only  by  careful  thought  can  the  right  reasons 
be  found  and  expressed.  The  reasoning  of  our  opponents 
in  argument  must  also  be  analyzed  and  tested,  so  that  error 
may  be  pointed  out  and  truth  be  found.  The  following  is 
a  brief  statement  of  the  tests  for  the  five  kinds  of  reasoning  : 

TESTS  FOR  REASONING 

1.  Induction.  Are  the  facts  cited  sufficient  in  number  and  in 
force  to  prove  the  general  law  ?  Could  there  be  any  other  inter- 
pretation of  the  facts  ?  Are  there  enough  other  facts  to  prove 
the  opposite  ? 

2.  Deduction.  Is  the  supposed  cause  strong  enough  to  bring 
about  the  effect  said  to  follow  ?  Is  there  any  other  cause  or  law 
which  might  prevent  the  operation  of  the  law  ? 

3.  Example.  Is  the  example  so  clearly  typical  that  it  may  be 
used  to  prove  the  existence  of  the  general  law  ? 

4.  Sign,  Does  the  fact  said  to  be  a  sign  lead  inevitably  to  the 
cause,  and  does  this  cause  in  turn  lead  to  the  alleged  result  ? 

5.  Analogy,  Is  the  comparison  a  fair  one  and  the  resemblance 
close  enough  ?    Are  the  statements  in  the  argument  all  true  ones  .' 

We  shall  later  have  more  to  say  about  tests  for  reason- 
ing (see  under  Refutation). 


250  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

Applying  Reasoning  to  the  Debate.  The  chief  value  of 
the  study  of  reasoning  is  that  it  teaches  the  student  to 
decide  how  to  go  about  proving  a  proposition.  He  may  try 
first  to  find  out  if  there  are  facts  which  will  aid  in  proving  it 
by  induction  ;  second,  to  see  if  it  is  itself  a  result  of  a  larger 
law ;  third,  to  see  if  there  are  good  examples  which  might 
help  to  prove  it ;  fourth,  to  seek  out  any  signs  that  indicate 
the  truth  of  the  contention  ;  and  fifth,  to  think  out  one  or 
two  good  analogies  which  might  add  force  to  the  argument. 

Let  us  conclude  our  discussion  of  reasoning  by  noting  the 
five  ways  in  which  one  might  attempt  to  reason  that  the 
Philippine  Islands  should  be  given  their  freedom  : 

First,  by  induction  seek  out  the  facts  of  education,  loyalty,  interest, 
desire,  participation,  success,  and  reliability,  and  from  these  facts,  con- 
clude that  the  people  should  be  free.  Second,  by  deduction  show  that 
this  question  is  but  a  part  of  the  larger  one  of  justice  to  the  oppressed, 
of  the  consent  of  the  governed,  and  of  the  right  of  any  people  to  be 
free  from  the  domination  of  an  alien  race.  If  these  causes  operate,  we 
may  conclude  that  these  reasons  should  apply  to  the  Philippines.  Third, 
as  an  example  cite  the  success  of  Cuba.  Fourth,  cite  the  celebration 
held  in  Manila  when  President  Wilson  was  elected,  as  a  sign  that  the 
people  want  freedom,  and  their  earnest  debates  in  the  assembly,  as  a 
sign  that  they  will  use  their  independence  wisely.  Fifth,  study  the 
resemblances  between  the  Philippines  and  the  man  whose  house  was 
captured  by  robbers  and  who  was  assisted  in  driving  them  out  by  a 
strange  man  who  then  took  possession  of  the  house. 

Finally,  let  us  suggest  some  possible  tests  for  the  above 
lines  of  argument : 

First,  are  the  facts  on  education,  loyalty,  etc.,  of  themselves  sufficient 
to  prove  that  independence  is  desirable.?  Do  not  these  facts  prove  that 
we  should  continue  our  present  plans.''  Do  not  other  facts,  such  as  the 
variety  of  races  and  religions,  justify  the  conclusion  that  these  people 
should  not  be  independent,  at  least  for  the  present .''    Second,  do  the 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  251 

laws  of  abstract  justice  apply  to  this  practical  problem?  Does  not  the 
law  of  the  "big  brother"  and  his  duty  take  precedence?  Third,  is 
small  and  unified  Cuba  a  fair  example  to  use  in  proving  fhat  we  should 
give  freedom  to  the  Philippines?  Fourth,  do  these  signs  lead  us  to  any 
solid  conviction  that  independence  would  be  well  used?  Fifth,  is  the 
resemblance  between  the  Philippines  and  a  robbed  house  sufficiently 
close?  Who  owned  the  house  in  the  first  place?  Did  the  so-called 
owner  claim  all  the  house?  Is  the  so-called  owner  capable  of  using  the 
house  in  the  right  way  ?  Did  not  the  "  strange  man  "  have  an  additional 
duty  to  perform  ? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Examine  the  statements  below,  and  decide  what  method  or 
methods  of  reasoning  are  used  in  the  case  of  each.  Be  prepared 
to  give  accurate  and  correct  answers  to  each  of  the  statements,  and 
to  explain  your  reasons  for  deciding  as  you  do.  Are  the  statements 
true? 

1.  If  I  find  the  strawberry  bed  scratched  up,  I  look  to  see  if  the 
berries  have  been  eaten. 

2.  If  the  moon  has  a  ring  around  it,  there  is  likely  to  be  rain  soon. 

3.  The  United  .States  should  have  control  of  the  city  of  Panama,  for 
a  person  cannot  have  a  pleasant  home  with  a  strange  man  hanging 
around  the  front  door. 

4.  Small  countries  are  very  patriotic ;  look  at  Switzerland. 

5.  Princeton  beat  Yale,  and  Yale  beat  Harvard;  therefore  Princeton 
can  beat  Harvard. 

6.  The  man  had  been  drinking ;   I  could  smell  his  breath. 

7.  Pepper  trees  are  good  shade  trees  because  they  spread  well  and 
keep  green. 

8.  One  who  is  successful  in  his  own  business  ought  to  be  a  good 
manager  of  the  city's  business. 

9.  Drivers  are  frequently  overworked ;  we  should  remember  this 
when  the  milkman  is  late. 

10.  A  storm  drain  ought  to  be  built ;  at  the  time  of  the  last  rain  we 
could  n't  get  across  the  street. 

2.  By  which  of  the  five  methods  of  reasoning  would  you  at- 
tempt to  prove  the  statements  below  ?   In  each  case  be  ready  to 


252  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

tell  which  method  would  be  best,  and  which  other  methods  might 
also  be  used.  Give  reasons,  and  be  able  to  show  how  the  reasoning 
might  be  done. 

1.  All  the  presidents  of  the  United  States  have  come  from  Eastern 
states. 

2.  Street-car  rails  make  pavements  rough. 

3.  The  pay-as-you-enter  cars  delay  the  traffic. 

4.  The  income  tax  will  be  a  success. 

5.  The  form  of  government  of  the  United  States  has  been  copied 
by  other  countries. 

6.  Revolutions  in  Mexico  are  hard  to  prevent. 

7.  Impeachment  proceedings  against  judges  usually  fail. 

8.  Recall  of  judges  will  have  bad  effects. 

9.  The  world  is  speed-mad. 

10.  You  will  enjoy  your  play  more  if  you  do  your  work  first. 

3.  Study  the  reasons  for  the  association  of  the  ideas  put  to- 
gether in  each  of  the  items  below.  Is  one  the  cause  of  the  other  ? 
Are  they  both  effects  of  the  same  cause  ?  Is  there  a  common 
cause  back  of  them  ?  Is  there  the  connection  of  a  supposed  cause 
which  does  not  exist  ?  Have  they  no  real  connection  ?  Be  ready 
to  make  a  complete  explanation  of  each. 

1.  Shortage  of  money  and  a  financial  panic. 

2.  Woman  suffrage  and  prohibition. 

3.  Preparedness  and  war. 

4.  A  dry  season  and  high  prices. 

5.  Labor  unions  and  high  wages. 

6.  Did  you  hear  that  snap?    It  was  a  mouse. 

7.  I  hear  the  bell ;  we  shall  be  late. 

8.  Here  is  a  marble  ;  let 's  look  for  another. 

9.  The  weather  man  says  rain  ;  no  picnic  to-day. 
10.  There  goes  the  whistle ;   Happy  New  Year ! 

4.  Make  a  collection  of  significant  facts  which  you  observe  about 
some  one  feature  of  your  school — its  grounds,  buildings,  students, 
teachers,  or  studies.  From  these  facts  try  to  draw  up  a  general 
statement  which  will  include  all  of  them,  or  find  a  law  which  will 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  253 

account  for  all.  Using  simple  notes,  practice  giving  a  large  num- 
ber of  these  facts,  ending  the  talk  with  the  conclusion  to  which 
they  lead  by  induction. 

5.  Think  out  a  general  statement  which  is  true  of  all  towns 
the  size  of  yours,  or  a  law,  rule,  or  condition  which  is  true  of  all. 
Then  think  out  and  write  down  as  many  results  of  the  existence 
of  this  law  as  you  can.  Practice  giving  the  talk,  beginning  with 
the  statement  which  is  recognized  as  true,  and  following  this  with 
an  interesting  list  or  series  of  consequences  which  are  deduced 
from  the  law. 

6.  Compose  a  statement  advocating  a  change  or  improvement, 
such  as  the  following :  "  The  United  States  should  cease  building 
battleships."  What  results  would  follow  if  this  should  be  put  into 
actual  operation  ?  Decide  what  can  be  deducted  from  the  proposal, 
and  come  prepared  to  give  the  statement  and  its  applications. 

7.  Prepare  a  bright,  attractive  argument  by  example  to  give 
in  class.  You  are  to  choose  a  fact  which  shows  the  existence  of  a 
general  truth  or  the  operation  of  a  law ;  and  the  example  given 
should  be  so  strong  and  so  evident  that  it  will  point  at  once  to  the 
truth  of  the  general  statement. 

8.  Prepare  an  argument  from  sign.  Practice  the  reasoning  by 
which  you  show  that  one  fact  is  the  sign  that  another  is  true.  Be 
prepared  to  explain  the  causes  which  lie  back  of  the  sign,  and  the 
result  to  which  your  reasoning  leads. 

9.  Think  over  the  points  of  resemblance  in  the  cases  men- 
tioned below.  Then  prepare  an  argument  based  on  the  analogy 
between  the  members  of  each.  Be  ready  to  indicate  to  the  class 
the  line  of  reasoning  you  would  use  in  the  comparisons.  Then 
practice  the  oral  argument  for  two  of  these  analogies.    Liken : 

1.  War  to  a  nightmare.  6.  Business  to  a  race. 

2.  A  school  to  a  family.  7.  A  country  to  an  individual. 

3.  A  child  to  a  plant.  8.  Life  to  a  fight. 

4.  A  thought  to  a  seed.  9.  City  government  to  housekeeping. 

5.  A  writer  to  a  carpenter.  10.  The  tariff  question  to  a  puzzle. 


254  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

10.  Test  these  statements  from  the  standpoint  of  correct  reason- 
ing and  truth,  and  be  prepared  to  give  oral  criticisms : 

1.  The  schools    are    the  cause    of   the  superior   morality  of   the 
American  people. 

2.  Saloons  have  helped  us ;  see  how  fast  the  city  has  grown. 

3.  In  the  last  ten  years  divorces  have  greatly  increased  in  number; 
this  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  spread  of  suffrage. 

4.  My  cake  is  n't  good,  for  I  forgot  to  use  the  eggs. 
6.   Pupils,  like  soldiers,  should  obey  without  question. 

6.  Rockefeller  was  a  success  because  he  started  as  a  poor  boy. 

7.  The  ticking  of  that  clock  keeps  me  awake. 

8.  All  wages  should  be  equalized,  for  there  is  no  reason  why  one 
man  should  spend  more  than  another. 

9.  People  would  n't  be  so  poor  if  they  would  stop  drinking. 

The  Brief  of  the  Argument.  The  outline  of  an  argu- 
ment is  called  a  biief.  The  brief  is  made  up  of  complete 
sentences,  and  its  points  may  be  read  downward  consecu- 
tively. All  the  main  topics  serve  to  prove  the  truth  of  the 
proposition  for  debate ;  and,  in  turn,  all  the  subtopics  under 
each  main  topic  serve  to  prove  the  truth  of  that  main  topic. 

A  Short  Example.  Following  is  an  example  of  a  brief, 
with  the  evidence  omitted : 

THE  UNITED  STATES  SHOULD  INTERVENE  IN  MEXICO 

Negative  Brief 
A.  Intrflditdion 

1 .  A  right  solution  is  of  supreme  importance. 

2.  Intervention  means  temporary  armed  control  to  establish  peace. 

3.  The  issues  are:  Would  intervention  be  just.?  and,  Would  it  be 

expedient  ? 

4.  The  negative  maintains  that  the  United  States  should  not  inter- 

vene in  Mexico,  because 
First,  Intervention  would  be  unjust,  and 
Second,  Intervention  would  be  inexpedient. 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  255 

B.  Argument 

I.   Intervention  in  Mexico  would  be  unjust, y2;/" 

1 .  It  would  \'iolate  Mexico's  right  to  independence. 

2.  It  would  violate  the  spirit  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 
(Summary :   i  and  2,  therefore  I.) 

II.   Intervention  in  Mexico  would  be  inexpedient, y^r 

1 .  No  satisfactory  method  has  been  proposed. 

2.  Mexico  would  resist. 

3.  We  are  not  in  a  position  to  improve  Mexico. 

4.  Intervention  would  have  bad  effects. 
(Summary:    i,  2,  3,  and  4,  therefore  II.) 

C.  Conclusion 

1 .  Summary  :  We  have  proved 

First,  Intervention  would  be  unjust,  and 

Second,  Intervention  would  be  inexpedient. 

Therefore,  The  United  States  should  not  intervene  in  Mexico. 

2.  We  appeal  to  all  loyal  Americans  to  uphold  the  honor  of 

our  country  and  to  let  Mexico  work  out  its  own  problem. 

How  the  Points  are  Read  and  Summarized.  The  above 
brief  would  do  for  the  speaker  to  hold  in  his  hand  if  the 
speech  were  to  be  very  short,  and  if  he  were  very  familiar 
with  his  subject.  But  it  is  much  too  short  for  the  use  of 
one  who  is  to  give  a  detailed  argument.  It  does  show,  how- 
ever, how  the  brief  may  be  read,  with  the  subpoints  prov- 
ing the  main  points.  It  shows  also  that  when  one  has  finished 
with  his  main  points,  he  must  summarize ;  and  that  the 
summaries  are  given  with  the  subpoints  first,  and  that  they 
lead  through  the  word  '  therefore '  to  the  main  point  in 
each  case.  Let  us  note  the  two  forms  for  the  first  main 
point  of  the  brief  above.  The  brief  reads,  "  Intervention 
in  Mexico  would  be  unjust,  for  it  would  violate  Mexico's 
right  to  independence,  and  it  would  violate  the  spirit  of  the 


256  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

Monroe  Doctrine,"  The  summary  may  be  read,  "  Interven- 
tion would  violate  Mexico's  right  to  independence,  and  it 
would  violate  the  spirit  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine ;  therefore 
intervention  would  be  unjust."  We  shall  speak  further  of 
these  summaries  under  the  section  below  on  practicing  the 
argument. 

How  the  Brief  is  Expanded.  It  was  remarked  above  that 
the  brief  here  given  is  very  short.  Let  us  see  how  it  is 
expanded  for  the  purpose  of  an  extended  argument.  Some 
lawyers'  briefs  are  as  long  as  this  book.  Such  briefs  in- 
clude full  reasons  for  every  statement  made,  and  incorporate 
under  each  reason  a  memorandum  of  the  facts  —  evidence 
—  upon  which  each  statement  depends.  The  debater  must 
do  these  two  things  so  far  as  it  is  feasible. 

Take  our  unsupported  statement  at  the  beginning  of  the 
argument,  that  intervention  would  violate  Mexico's  right  to 
independence.  This  in  itself  might  become  the  subject  of 
a  whole  debate.  If  it  were  debated  it  might  read,  "  Re- 
solved, that  intervention  in  Mexico  would  violate  Mexico's 
right  to  independence."  And  the  brief  on  this  question 
might  include  such  main  points  as  the  following:  "Inter- 
national law  recognizes  no  right  of  a  nation  to  interfere  in 
an  internal  quarrel ;  intervention  would  weaken  Mexico  in 
the  eyes  of  the  world  ;  Mexico  would  be  permanently  de- 
pendent upon  the  United  States."  These  three  points  are 
the  supports  of  the  statement  in  the  brief,  and  may  be 
written  therein.  In  the  same  way  the  other  statements  of 
the  brief  may  be  expanded  almost  without  limit.  But  if  we 
go  far  enough  in  expanding  the  point  upon  international 
law,  we  shall  soon  come  to  the  place  where  we  shall  write 
down  actual  facts  in  history  which  show  concrete  instances 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  257 

of  the  application  of  international  law.  We  should  then 
begin  to  \mte  down  actual  evidence  —  facts  which  are 
backed  by  history  and  by  indisputable  authority.  Like  the 
lawyers,  we  may  write  into  the  brief  these  actual  facts 
and  their  references.  We  shall  accordingly  have  done 
the  two  things  suggested  above :  we  shall  have  included 
full  reasons  for  every  statement,  and  we  shall  have  incor- 
porated actual  evidence. 

In  studying  for  an  argument  or  a  debate  it  will  be  found 
advisable  to  make  a  rather  full  brief ;  but  in  the  delivery 
of  the  speech  before  the  audience,  much  detail  may  be  so 
familiar  that  it  may  be  omitted.  All  exact  quotations  and 
all  statistics  used  must  be  included  ;  they  should  be  read 
and  not  recited  from  memory. 

Analysis,  as  used  in  making  the  Brief.  The  finding  of 
the  issues  and  the  making  of  briefs  is  called  analysis,  and 
the  process  of  analyzing  is  one  of  the  highest  activities 
of  the  mind.  The  student  need  not  be  discouraged,  there- 
fore, if  he  becomes  expert  only  by  slow  degrees.  Most 
writers  and  speakers  find  it  necessary  to  make  outline  after 
outline,  changing  the  points  and  the  order  of  the  points  as 
growth  in  understanding  comes.  So  the  student  must  work 
out  his  briefs,  writing  down  every  plan  that  suggests  itself 
and  then  trying  to  better  it.  No  brief  will  spring  from  the 
mind  full  grown.  It  must  be  the  product  of  hard  labor.  It 
must  expand  internally. 

Let  us  note  some  further  suggestions  which  will  make  the 
work  of  analysis  more  intelligent.  In  the  section  about  the  intro- 
duction we  have  seen  that  the  issues  are  found  by  studying  the 
proposition  to  find  out  what  questions  arise  and  must  be  answered. 
Thus,  whenever  a  proposition  advocates  a  change  of  policy,  four 


258  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

questions  usually  arise :  Are  the  present  conditions  satisfactory  ? 
Is  the  proposed  change  feasible  ?  Will  the  change  bring  good 
results  ?  Will  any  other  plan  serve  as  well  ?  The  affirmative, 
accordingly,  must  prove  that  present  conditions  are  unsatisfac- 
tory, that  the  proposed  change  is  workable,  that  it  will  be  bene- 
ficial, and  that  no  other  plan  will  do  as  well.  These  points  may 
be  the  main  sections  of  the  affirmative  brief,  and  the  negative  side 
may  shape  the  brief  to  deny  these  four  points. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  affirmative  speakers  in  the  debate 
have  more  to  prove  than  the  negative ;  for  it  is  certain  that  we 
should  need  to  know  that  all  four  affirmative  points  are  true 
before  we  finally  decide  to  make  the  proposed  change,  while  we 
should  refuse  to  change  if  any  one  were  not  true.  Hence  the 
negative  would  win  the  argument  if  it  could  be  shown  that  any 
one  point  is  untrue  —  that  present  conditions  are  not  unsatis- 
factory, or  that  the  proposed  change  is  not  workable,  or  that  the 
results  will  not  or  would  not  be  good,  or  that  there  is  another 
way  fully  as  good  as  the  one  proposed.  This  explains  why  the 
affirmative  in  a  debate  has  the  opening  and  closing  speeches. 

In  outlining  such  a  question  as,  "  A  new  school  building  should 
be  erected,"  the  debaters  should  avoid  the  word  '  needed  '  or 
'  necessary '  in  their  briefs.  If  we  say  that  a  new  school  building 
is  necessary,  we  mean  that  the  present  building  is  inadequate, 
that  the  new  building  would  relieve  conditions,  and  that  no 
other  plan  will  solve  the  difficulty.  The  word  '  necessary,'  there- 
fore, covers  almost  the  whole  proposition.  As  a  single  point  this 
issue  is  too  large  for  use  in  the  outline  of  the  argument. 

The  Order  of  the  Points.  Careful  thought  must  be  given 
to  the  order  of  the  points.  We  have  discussed  the  prin- 
ciples of  outlining  in  Chapter  VIII,  and  those  principles 
apply  in  the  main  to  the  drawing  up  of  the  brief.  There 
are  two  or  three  other  considerations  worthy  of  note.  The 
first  point  undertaken  in  the  brief  should  be  a  telling  point, 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  "  259 

one  that  will  go  a  long  way  in  winning  the  good  will  and 
confidence  of  the  audience. 

It  often  happens  that  one  audience  requires  a  different  order 
of  points  from  another  audience.  If  a  peace  society  were  listening 
to  a  speaker  who  was  advocating  intervention,  for  example,  thfe 
members  would  wish  first  to  hear  about  the  ethical  aspect  of  the 
question;  and  they  would  be  antagonistic  toward  a  person  who 
began  his  speech  with  trying  to  show  the  expediency  of  inter- 
vention. On  the  other  hand,  to  an  audience  of  congressmen  one 
might  reverse  the  order,  discussing  expediency  first  and  justice 
second.  In  the  argument  for  a  new"  school  building  a  women's 
club  might  receive  most  favorably  the  point  that  present  condi- 
tions are  bad  ;  and  an  audience  of  children,  the  argument  that 
benefits  will  come  from  the  new  building.  An  audience  of  school 
committeemen,  however,  might  be  impatient  with  either  of  these 
arguments  until  they  were  shown  that  the  plan  to  build  was  feasible 
both  as  to  place  and  as  to  money. 

As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  said  that  when  there  seems 
to  be  no  apparent  reason  for  any  special  order  of  the  points 
in  the  brief,  these  points  may  be  arranged  just  as  are  the 
runners  in  a  relay  race  —  the  strongest  point  last,  the  next 
strongest  first,  and  the  others  between  the  two. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Choose  a  proposition,  —  about  your  school  or  town,  perhaps, 
—  and  think  out  the  issues  of  the  question.  Write  the  statements 
of  the  main  points  as  complete  sentences,  each  of  which  helps  to 
prove  or  deny  the  proposition.  Next  decide  upon  the  best  order 
of  the  points.  In  class  several  students  at  a  time  may  go  to  the 
board,  each  writing  his  proposition,  and  following  it  with  the  main 
points.  (Do  not  forget  the  word  '  because.')  The  class  should 
look  over  each  of  these  short  briefs,  criticizing  the  wording  of  the 


26o  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

proposition,  the  choice  of  issues,  the  statement  of  the  points,  and 
the  order  of  the  points.  The  board  work  should  then  be  revised. 
This  revision  may  go  on  while  other  briefs  are  being  considered. 

2.  Examine  the  items  below  for  the  purpose  of  using  them  in 
a  brief  to  prove,  "  A  state  university  should  be  established  in  the 

city  of  ."     Add  any  other  points  which  you  think  necessary 

to  construct  a  brief  of  the  argument  (without  the  introduction  and 
conclusion),  including  the  main  points  and  subpoints.  Bring  the 
brief,  and  compare  it  with  those  of  the  other  students.  As  a  class 
exercise,  a  composite  brief  on  the  question  may  be  made. 

Colleges  are  too  far  away. 

There  would  be  students  enough. 

Teachers  may  easily  be  found. 

Parents  wish  sons  and  daughters  near  home. 

Present  facilities  are  inadequate. 

A  location  has  been  found. 

Colleges  are  too  large. 

More  persons  would  have  an  education. 

It  would  relieve  the  other  colleges. 

High-school  work  would  be  improved. 

Money  can  be  raised. 

3.  Assuming  that  all  the  points  below  are  true  (some  of  them 
are  not),  draw  up  a  brief  on  the  proposition,  "  The  United  States 
should  continue  its  Chinese  exclusion  laws." 

Other  nations  restrict  immigration. 

The  Chinese  take  money  back  to  China. 

Exclusion  is  a  just  policy. 

Exclusion  has  had  good  effects. 

The  Chinese  are  undesirable. 

We  have  the  right  to  say  who  may  enter. 

The  Chinese  are  unsanitary. 

They  take  away  American  jobs. 

Exclusion  has  prevented  race  riots. 

The  Chinese  cannot  understand  American  customs. 

They  have  a  different  religion. 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  261 

4.  Consider  the  proposition,  "  Military  drill  should  be  required 
of  high-school  boys,"  or  some  other  proposition  selected  by  the 
class  as  a  whole  or  assigned  by  the  teacher.  Construct  a  brief, 
including  the  introduction,  argument,  and  conclusion.  Make  it  at 
least  as  full  as  the  brief  upon  the  Mexican  question  given  in  the 
text  above.  Choose  either  side  of  the  question  you  wish.  Students 
who  have  briefs  on  opposite  sides  of  the  question  may  compare 
their  papers.  Criticisms  and  corrections  may  be  made,  and  the 
briefs  then  handed  to  the  teacher  for  further  suggestions. 

If  there  is  time,  the  class  may  discuss  this  question  :  What 
should  be  the  opening  point,  on  the  affirmative  and  the  negative, 
for  each  of  the  following  groups  of  hearers  :  school  trustees  ;  high- 
school  boys ;  teachers  of  athletics  or  physical  training ;  teachers 
of  the  common  subjects  ;  army  officers  ;  congressmen  ;  mothers  ; 
fathers  ;  high-school  girls  ;  taxpayers  ;  business  men  ? 

5.  Consider  such  a  question  as,  "  This  city  should  build  a 
municipal  street  railroad,"  or,  "  This  town  should  use  all  reason- 
able efforts  to  secure  another  railroad."  Suppose  one  of  the  main 
points  reads,  "  Our  transportation  facilities  are  inadequate."  Ex- 
pand this  point,  writing  under  it  the  subpoints,  and  under  each 
subpoint  the  further  reasons  or  items  of  evidence  which  support 
that  statement.  Get  down  to  concrete  facts.  If  any  fact  is  not 
well  known,  write  into  the  brief  the  authority.  Be  ready  to  read 
it  and  to  defend  the  proposition. 

6.  In  the  brief  on  intervention,  the  last  subpoint  reads,  "  Inter- 
vention would  have  bad  effects."  Using  this  statement,  or  its 
opposite,  expand  this  point  to  include  several  statements  which 
will  support  it.  Make  the  support  strong  and  complete ;  include 
actual  concrete  conditions  which  you  think  would  become  facts 
in  case  of  intervention.  Use  instances  in  history  if  possible,  and 
in  any  case  have  the  foundation  details  so  carefully  selected  that 
their  truth  is  as  nearly  obvious  as  may  be  possible. 

7.  a.  Draw  up  a  brief  on  a  proposition  of  your  own  selection. 
Make  it  include  the  supporting  reasons  and  facts  for  the  subpoints 


262  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

under  the  main  statements,  with  authorities.  Include  the  introduc 
tion  and  conclusion.  Write  and  rewrite  the  brief,  and  endeavor  to 
make  it  faultless  as  to  both  form  and  matter.  In  class  exchange 
papers,  and  take  them  home  for  examination  and  criticism.  Write 
out  a  short  criticism  of  the  brief  handed  to  you,  and  bring  both 
the  brief  and  the  criticism  to  the  next  meeting  of  the  class. 

b.  In  class,  or  for  an  additional  outside  exercise,  each  student 
may  rewrite  his  brief  in  the  light  of  the  corrections  and  suggestions. 
Revised  briefs  may  then  be  examined  by  the  teacher.  Save  them 
for  later  use. 

The  Conclusion.  As  indicated  in  the  brief  above,  the 
conclusion  may  embrace  a  summary  of  the  argument  and 
an  appeal  to  the  hearers.  The  summing  up  may  include 
two  parts  —  a  review  of  the  case  of  the  opposite  side,  and 
a  restatement  of  the  main  points  which  have  served  to 
prove  the  proposition  under  discussion. 

Reviewing  the  Opposing  Case.  The  review  of  the  case 
of  the  opposition  may  or  may  not  deal  with  refutation. 
If  there  are  important  opposing  arguments  which  have  been 
advanced  and  not  yet  answered,  they  may  be  briefly  handled 
here.  In  most  cases,  however,  these  detailed  points  will 
have  been  covered  already,  and  the  conclusion  will  deal 
with  the  main  points  which  have  been  advanced  by  the 
opposition,  or  with  the  main  objections  which  are  commonly 
urged.  In  order  to  do  this,  the  issues  of  the  question  may 
again  be  stated,  following  which  the  speaker  may  tell  what 
must  be  proved  before  the  opposite  case  can  be  established. 

Let  us  illustrate.  Suppose  one  has  come  to  his  conclusion  in 
the  Intervention  question.  He  may  begin  as  follows  :  "  The  issues 
in  this  discussion,  as  we  have  already  seen,  are.  Would  interven- 
tion be  just  ?    and,  Would  intervention  be  expedient  ?    In  order  to 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  263 

establish  their  case,  those  who  advocate  intervention  must  prove  that 
it  w^ould  be  both  just  and  expedient."  Next,  the  speaker  may  call 
the  attention  of  the  audience  to  the  weakness  of  the  opposition.  He 
may  show  that  one  of  the  necessar)^  issues  has  been  ignored ;  that 
a  vital  support  for  one  or  more  indispensable  points  is  missing ; 
that  the  attempt  to  prove  one  or  more  points  has  been  weak  and 
ineffective ;  that  one  or  more  of  the  alleged  points  have  been  dis- 
proved and  that  therefore  the  argument  falls.  Successes  may  safely 
be  admitted  or  allowed  to  go  unanswered  ;  failures  should  be  made 
clear.  Then  may  follow  a  challenge  to  those  who  oppose,  calling 
upon  them  for  adequate  proof,  demanding  that  they  discuss  certain 
points,  asking  why  certain  arguments  "have  been  left  unanswered, 
and  pointing  out  that  these  errors  are  evidence  that  the  opposite 
of  their  position  is  true. 

Reviewing  One's  Own  Case.  The  summary  of  the  propo- 
sition itself,  as  has  been  indicated  above,  involves  merely  a 
recital  of  the  main  points,  followed  by  the  words,  ^^  therefore 
it  must  be  resolved,"  or  words  to  that  effect,  and  then  by 
the  proposition  itself.  The  theory  is  that  the  most  inclusive 
idea  must  come  last,  for  the  last  ideas  given  to  the  audience 
have  most  effect. 

The  Use  of  an  Appeal.  The  appeal  is  often  called  per- 
suasion.  It  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  every  argument  end 
with  an  appeal ;  many  talks  may  profitably  be  finished  with 
the  summary  of  the  main  points.  But  an  appeal  often  adds 
to  the  argument  because  it  rouses  the  feelings  of  the  hearers 
and  makes  them  want  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  further- 
ance of  the  idea  under  discussion.  The  sermon,  the  busi- 
ness argument,  the  oration,  and  the  political  address  are 
incomplete  without  such  an  appeal.  So  the  student  should 
practice  using  persuasion  in  his  arguments.  It  forces  him  to 
think  about  the  feelings  of  his  hearers,  to  put  himself  in 


264  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

their  place,  and  it  arouses  enthusiasm  for  his  cause.  The 
speaker  may  base  his  appeal  on  any  of  the  emotions  which 
are  uplifting.  Do  not  use  the  appeals  to  greed,  fear,  or 
hatred. 

EXERCISES 

1.  You  have  saved  fhe  briefs  drawn  up  in  connection  with  pre- 
vious exercises.  Examine  one  of  them  now  for  the  purpose  of 
making  the  conclusion  as  good  as  possible.  Draw  up  a  complete 
outline.  Bring  it  to  class  for  comparison  and  correction.  Be  ready 
to  give  the  conclusion  of  the  argument. 

2.  Choose  partners  and  opposite  sides  of  propositions  for  argu- 
ment. Independently  of  your  partner,  prepare  a  complete  brief, 
including  introduction  and  conclusion.  Exchange  briefs,  and  com- 
pare. After  careful  study  of  the  other  brief,  rewrite  your  conclu- 
sion, paying  particular  attention  to  the  review  of  the  case  of  the 
other  side.  Together  compare  the  reviews  and  criticisms.  The 
original  briefs  may  then  be  revised,  if  the  alleged  weaknesses  can 
be  strengthened  or  circumvented.  The  two  briefs  may  be  folded 
together  and  handed  in  for  the  teacher's  suggestions. 

3.  Study  the  following  propositions  of  Appendix  II,  section  B: 
9,  10,  12,  17,  18,  ig,  22,  29;  section  C:  i,  7,  8,  9.  Think  out 
for  each  of  them  a  few  sentences  of  persuasion.  Prepare  to  give 
this  appeal  for  one  of  the  propositions.  Make  the  appeal  strong 
and  worthy. 

Refutation.  Up  to  this  point  we  have  barely  mentioned 
refutation,  for  it  seemed  best  first  to  gain  a  systematic  and 
complete  idea  of  the  argument  as  it  is  given  constructively, 
and  to  leave  the  destructive  features  for  later  consideration. 
We  have  thus  far  seen  how  to  handle  evidence,  how  to  rea- 
son, how  to  draw  the  brief,  and  how  to  conclude.  It  must 
now  be  understood  that  refutation  (rebuttal)  should  go  along 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  265 

with,  and  be  a  part  of,  the  actual  argument,   and   should 
therefore  be  put  into  the  brief. 

Using  Rebuttal  in  the  Brief.  Thus,  in  the  Intervention 
brief,  under  the  point  that  no  satisfactory  method  has  been 
proposed,  this  entry  might  be  written  : 

Refute  :  Blockade  the  coast  to  cut  off  supplies.  Internal  resources 
are  abundant. 

The  above  entry  indicates  to  the  speaker  that  opponents 
may  claim  that  a  blockade  would  be  a  satisfactory  plan,  and 
that  in  answer  it  will  be  sufficient  to  call  attention  to  the 
well-known  fact  that  Mexico's  internal  resources  are  varied 
and  abundant.  Such  answers  may  be  fully  outlined  in  the 
brief,  with  subpoints  supporting  them,  together  with  facts 
and  authorities.  Refutation  in  the  brief  should  always  be 
labeled  as  such. 

The  above  example  will  show  that  one  who  is  to  give  an 
argument  must  try  to  anticipate  the  objections  that  may  be 
urged.  Many  a  well-constructed  argument  has  failed  because 
the  hearers  were  allowed  to  go  away  with  a  few  objections 
in  their  minds  —  objections  which  might  easily  have  been 
answered.  Therefore,  a  feature  of  the  study  of  any  question 
must  be  the  consideration  of  opposing  points. 

Collecting  New  Points  to  Answer.  But  even  when  the 
debater  has  done  his  best  to  anticipate  arguments,  many 
new  thoughts  will  occur  to  him  as  he  listens  to  an  oppos- 
ing speech.  The  arguments  given  by  an  opponent  should 
be  noted  down,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  later  section.  These 
points  should  then  be  tested,  according  to  the  plans  out- 
lined in  the  section  on  reasoning.,  One  must  be  alert  every 
moment  that  an  opposing  speech  is  being  given.    Are  there 


266  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

any  false  or  incorrect  definitions,  mistaken  causes,  mis- 
taken effects,  c|uestionable  authorities,  mere  statements  with 
no  evidence,  false  or  misleading  illustrations  or  analogies  ? 
Such  matters  should  be  pointed  out  when  the  speech  is 
answered.  If  one's  opponents  avoid  the  main  issue,  or 
descend  to  ridicule,  or  use  personal  remarks,  or  state  points 
unfairly,  or  refute  what  never  has  been  claimed,  or  resort  to 
cheap  humor,  the  speaker  should  not  reply  in  kind.  Let  him 
point  out  what  has  been  done,  state  that  such  methods  prove 
nothing  about  the  point  at  issue,  and  demand  actual  proof. 
Special  Methods  of  Refutation.  The  one  thing  to  do  is 
to  lay  bare  the  error,  to  let  it  destroy  itself,  and  then  to 
state  the  true  position.  Besides  the  methods  suggested 
above,  there  are  two  or  three  special  helps. 

Frequently  the  opponent  may  be  involved  in  a  dilemma ;  for 
instance,  he  may  have  taken  a  position  which  leads  to  conclusions 
that  are  bad  for  his  case.  Thus,  the  man  who  assumes  that  woman 
suffrage  would  take  women  from  the  home,  involves  himself  in 
this  dilemma  :  he  must  hold  either  that  some  activities  outside  the 
home  are  good  for  women,  or  else  that  theater,  shopping,  visiting, 
social  work,  club,  and  church  are  also  bad.  Again,  sometimes 
an  argument  may  be  shown  to  contradict  itself.  Thus,  one  who 
objects  to  voting  bonds  for  a  new  library  building,  on  the  ground 
that  the  city  cannot  afford  it,  and  later  advocates  renting  rooms 
in  a  building,  involves  himself  in  a  contradiction  of  points,  for  the 
rent  would  ordinarily  cost  more  than  the  bonds.  Again,  sometimes 
an  argument  proves  more  than  the  speaker  intends  to  prove,  and 
thus  hurts  his  case.  The  speaker  who  advocates  a  blockade  of  the 
Mexican  coast  comes  very  near  admitting  that  a  land  movement 
against  Mexico  would  be  difficult  and  costly. 

Attacking  in  More  than  One  Way.  Often  it  is  good  policy 
to  attack  a  point  from  several  angles.    Thus  the  truth  of  the 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  267 

point  may  be  denied,  and  proof  may  be  offered  to  show  its 
falsity.  Then  it  may  be  shown  that  even  if  the  alleged 
statement  were  tme,  it  would  not  lead  to  the  conclusion 
claimed  for  it. 

Outlining  an  Item  of  Rebuttal.  In  order  to  accomplish 
its  full  effect,  refutation  must  be  carefully  outlined.  The 
following  is  a  suggested  form  : 

OUTLINE    FOR   REFUTATION 

1.  What  our  opponents  claim. 

2.  Our  reply. 

3.  Proof  that  our  position  is  correct. 

4.  How  the  issue  stands  now,  and  its  application  to  the  main 

question. 

What  Points  to  Answer.  Many  debaters,  pressed  for 
time  in  a  speech,  try  to  handle  too  many  points  in  refuta- 
tion ;  by  actual  count  sixteen  points  were  mentioned  once 
in  a  five-minute  rebuttal.  When  less  than  a  minute  is  given 
to  a  point  it  is  impossible  to  do  it  justice,  except  in  rare 
instances. 

Only  the  most  important  considerations  should  be  refuted. 
It  is  a  waste  of  good  time  to  give  any  attention  to  little 
points  which  have  only  a  remote  bearing  on  the  main  point 
at  issue.  The  attack  should  be  centered  on  the  most  im- 
portant statements  of  the  opponents  ;  the  others  may  safely 
be  ignored. 

Preparing  and  using  Refutation  Cards.  Refutation  cards 
may  be  prepared  for  a  debate,  l^^ach  opposing  argument 
that  promises  to  be  formidable  may  be  written  on  the  top 
of  a  card,  and  the  card  may  then  be  filled  out  according  to 


268  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

the  above  outline,  ready  for  use  should  that  particular  point 
be  raised  by  the  opponents.  If  cards  referring  to  similar 
phases  of  the  subject  are  kept  together,  one  may  be  selected 
as  needed  and  slipped  into  its  proper  place  among  the  cards 
containing  the  notes  for  the  debate.  An  X  in  the  margin  of 
a  regular  card  will  show  the  place  to  introduce  the  refutation 
into  the  speech. 

Where  in  the  speech  shall  refutation  be  introduced  ? 
Wherever  it  most  nearly  touches  on  points  in  one's  own 
speech.  In  the  case  of  other  refutation,  however  (upon 
subjects  not  referred  to  in  the  speech),  probably  the  very 
first  part  of  the  speech  is  the  best  place.  Here  we  at  once 
accept  the  issue  raised  by  our  opponents,  and  clear  the  way 
for  our  own  constructive  material. 

Summary  of  Rebuttal  Methods.  Below  we  give  a  brief 
summary  of  the  possible  methods  of  refutation  : 

METHODS   OF   REFUTATION 

1.  Show  that  the  statement  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  issue. 

2.  Admit  the  truth  of  the  statement,  but  draw  a  different  conclusion. 

3.  Show  that  the  authority  quoted  is  unreliable. 

4.  Show  that  no  real  proof  has  been  advanced  for  the  statement. 

5.  Offer  evidence  to  prove  the  contrary. 

6.  Show  that  the  argument  involves  a  mistake  in  reasoning. 

7.  Show  that  it  leads  into  a  dilemma. 

8.  Show  that  it  involves  a  self-contradiction. 

9.  Show  that  it  contradicts  another  point. 

10.  Show  that  it  proves  too  much. 

11.  Show  that  the  statement  is  unlikely  or  absurd. 


BUILDING  UP  THE  ARGUMENT  269 

EXERCISES 

1.  Examine  a  brief  which  you  have  drawn  up  in  connection 
with  a  previous  exercise,  and  see  if  it  can  be  improved  by  intro- 
ducing into  it  some  memoranda  for  refutation.  Rewrite  the  brief, 
putting  into  it  four  or  more  such  points  for  refutation.  Label 
them  properly,  make  the  notes  sentences,  and  make  them  so  full 
that  anybody  would  understand  them.  Bring  the  brief  to  class 
for  criticism. 

Practice  one  or  two  of  the  refutations  orally,  and  come  pre- 
pared to  give  one  before  the  class.    Keep  the  briefs  for  use  again. 

2.  Consider  the  statements  given  below.  Choose  two  of  them 
for  refutation.  Write  each  statement  at  the  top  of  a  card  or  slip 
of  paper.  Follow  it  with  the  reply,  the  proof,  and  the  conclusion. 
If  two  replies  might  be  made,  prepare  the  notes  for  both  lines  of 
attack.  Practice  the  refutations  and  give  them  orally.  If  there  is 
time,  get  criticisms  and  answers  from  the  other  students. 

1.  The  reason  that  people  drink  intoxicating  liquors  is  that  they 
seem  to  have  a  craving  for  strong  drink. 

2.  The    Mexican    peons    are    hopelessly  ignorant,    therefore  it  is 
useless  to  try  to  improve  their  political  condition. 

3.  Since  the  tramps  won't  work,  they  ought  to  be  put  in  jail. 

4.  My  opponent  has  worked  himself  into  a  rage  on  this  question, 
which  proves  that  he  is  wrong. 

5.  The  library  building  will  be  of  untold  benefit ;  this  reason  alone 
is  sufficient  to  make  us  decide  to  build  it. 

6.  It   is   a  good   thing   for  children   to   work,  for   then   they  can 
help  support  their  parents. 

7.  Little  chicks  do  not  scratch  for  the  mother  hen  ;  why  therefore 
should  children  work  for  parents  "^ 

8.  There  is  Sr 0,000  left  in  the  treasury;  therefore  we  may  as  well 
build  the  fire  house. 

9.  Prohibition  has  increased ;  this  must  be  due  to  the  progress  of 
education. 

10.  This  alarm  clock  is  cheap  and  good ;  everybody  here  should 
buy  one. 


2/0  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

3.  Let  the  class  choose  a  question  for  general  debate,  half 
taking  the  affirmative  and  half  the  negative.  A  familiar  subject 
should  be  chosen,  such  as  prohibition,  smoking  on  cars,  govern- 
ment ownership,  two  rival  candidates  for  an  office ;  and  time  for 
study  should  be  allowed.  At  the  appointed  meeting  the  students 
may  take  opposite  sides  of  the  room,  and  alternate  in  speaking 
on  the  proposition;  The  order  of  speaking  may  be  decided  before- 
hand, or  the  seating  may  determine  it.  Each  speaker  may  be 
limited  to  two  minutes. 

The  purpose  of  this  exercise  is  refutation.  When  your  turn 
comes,  take  up  one  point  and  attempt  to  cover  it  according  to 
the  suggestions  in  the  text. 


III.    PRACTICE    FOR  THE   SPEECH 

A  person  who  wishes  to  become  successful  in  debate 
should  carefully  practice  the  exercises  of  the  earlier  chap- 
ters which  have  to  do  with  posture,  gesture,  the  use  of  the 
eyes,  the  use  of  the  voice,  the  improvement  of  the  vocabu- 
lary, fluency  in  speaking,  and  good  style  in  composition. 
Much  of  the  material  there  given  has  been  related  directly 
or  chiefly  to  argument ;  we  shall  here  add  only  a  few 
special  considerations. 

Preparing  Notes  to  use  in  Speaking.  When  the  brief  is 
complete  it  may  be  put  on  cards  for  use  before  the  audience.  A 
careful  plan  of  indentation  is  indispensable,  for  this  will  show 
the  relative  importance  of  the  points.  These  cards  should  con- 
tain not  only  the  actual  brief,  but  also  the  necessary  summa- 
ries. As  we  have  seen  above,  all  the  main  points  are  stated 
at  the  end  of  the  introduction  and  repeated  in  the  conclusion. 

Each  main  point,  in  turn,  should  have  its  prospective 
and    retrospective    summary ;    and   the    cards    should    have 


PRACTICE  FOR  THE  SPEECH  271 

these  subpoints  written  at  both  the  beginning  and  the  end- 
ing of  the  notes  on  each  main  point,  so  that  the  speaker 
will  not  have  to  look  at  other  cards  for  them.  It  may  be 
objected  that  the  speaker  who  knows  his  subject  will  not 
need  these  helps.  In  a  way  this  is  true,  but  having  the 
topics  at  the  right  place  is  a  convenient  reminder,  and  it 
is  therefore  best  to  include  them.  The  prospective  sum- 
maries are  given  with  the  becmise  or  for  reading,  and  those 
at  the  end  of  each  main  point  with  the  therefore  reading, 
as  explained  on  page  255. 

Extempore  Repetition  of  the  Speech.  With  the  cards  fully 
prepared,  the  student  may  practice  the  speech,  choosing  his 
words  as  he  proceeds.  He  must  avoid  such  awkward,  ob- 
vious expressions  as,  "I  think,"  "We  believe,"  "We  feel 
sure,"  "I  shall  now  take  up  the  next  main  point,"  "We 
now  come  to  our  conclusion."  Repetition  of  the  main 
points  in  the  same  words  or  in  equivalent  language  is  nec- 
essary for  clearness.^  In  spite  of  the  repetitions,  however, 
the  transitions  from  one  idea  to  another  must  be  skillfully 
made.  Practice  will  develop  smoothness.  Summaries  should 
be  given  slowly,  so  that  the  full  meaning  of  what  is  to  be 
proved  and  what  has  been  proved  may  be  appreciated.  The 
speaker  must  remember  that  sincere  enthusiasm  is  much 
needed  in  debate  ;  he  should  therefore  make  himself  familiar 
with  his  brief,  so  that  the  references  to  the  notes  will  not 
interfere  with  the  attractiveness  of  his  presentation.  Eight 
or  ten  practice  speeches  will  accomplish  wonders  toward 
ease  of  speaking.  The  words  will  come  easily,  the  eyes  will 
be  free  for  the  audience  at  critical  points  in  the  argument, 
and  natural  gestures  will  be  used. 

1  For  example,  see  Lincoln's  "  Cooper  Union  Speech." 


2/2 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 


HOW  CARDS  ARE  FOLLOWED  IN  SPEAKING 


(Resolved,   that  the   Monroe 
Doctrine  .  .  .) 

Colleague  : 

I.  The  Monroe  Doctrine 
is  not  in  accord  with 
sound  international 
relations. 

II.  It    has    dangers   con- 
nected with  it. 

My  Part  : 

III.  It  has  ceased  to  be  a 
benefit  to  the  Amer- 
ican republics. 


World?  Self-respect?  United 
States  ? 


III.  The  Monroe  Doctrine 
has  ceased  to  be  a  benefit  to 
the  American  republics,  for 

1.  It  belittles  them  in  the 
eyes  of  other  nations. 

2.  It  lowers  their  self- 
respect. 

3.  It  hinders  their  normal 
relation  with  the  United  States. 


I.  //  belittles  them  in  the 
eyes  of  other  natio)is. 


Shall  the  Monroe  Doctrine  be 
continued?  My  colleague,  the  first 
speaker  on  the  negative,  has  already 
shown  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  is 
not  in  accord  with  sound  interna- 
tional relations ;  and,  second,  that 
grave  dangers  are  connected  with 
it.  It  will  be  my  part  in  this  debate 
to  prove,  third,  that  this  Doctrine 
has  ceased  to  be  a  benefit  to  the 
American  republics. 

Let  us  look  at  the  question  of 
possible  benefits  from  three  points 
of  view:  (i)  Has  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  dignified  the  Amer- 
ican republics  in  the  eyes  of  the 
world?  (2)  Has  it  increased  their 
self-respect?  (3)  Has  it  helped  the 
friendly  relationship  of  these  coun- 
tries with  the  United  States?  We 
shall  maintain  that  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine has  ceased  to  be  a  benefit  to 
the  American  republics,  in  three 
particulars  :  first,  it  belittles  them  in 
the  eyes  of  other  nations ;  second, 
it  lowers  their  self-respect;  and  third, 
it  hinders  their  normal  relations  with 
the  United  States. 

The  continuance  of  this  policy  on 
the  part  of  the  LTnited  States,  then, 
is  a  detriment  to  the  southern  re- 
publics of  the  western  hemisphere 
in  that  it  belittles  them  in  the  eyes 
of  other  nations.  Promulgated  nearly 
a  century  ago,  when  these  republics 


PRACTICE  FOR  THE  SPEECH 


273 


They  are  spoken  of  as  wards 
of  this  counti'y. 

We  are  called  their  guard- 
ians. 

They  are  compared  to  Cuba 
and  the  Philippines. 

They  are  not  treated  as  real 
nations. 

Quotations  to  prove  these 
statements : 


were  in  their  infancy,  and  when 
greed  for  conquest  was  rife  in  the 
world,  this  Doctrine  still  stands,  a 
brand  of  continued  infancy  upon 
these  prosperous  and  growing 
nations.  They  are  still  spoken  of 
as  our  wards,  and  we  as  their  guard- 
ian. We  have  here  evidence  to 
prove  that  in  European  magazines 
and  newspapers  they  are  frequently 
compared,  in  their  relationship  with 
this  country,  to  Cuba  and  the  Phil- 
ippines, and  that  in  many  diplomatic 
affairs  they  are  not  treated  as  real 
nations.  I  shall  now  turn  to  some 
quotations  to  prove  these  statements. 


Following  the  Notes.  The  graphic  scheme  will  show  at 
a  glance  the  manner  in  which  the  speech  grows  out  of  the 
cards  held  in  the  hand.  We  have  supposed  that  a  debater 
is  beginning  the  constructive  part  of  the  second  negative 
speech  on  the  question,  Resolved,  that  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine should  be  continued. 

Attending  to  the  Time  Limit.  The  matter  of  time  limit 
must  be  attended  to  in  practice.  A  debater  need  never  be 
discouraged  if  he  has  to  cut  down  his  speech,  for  this  means 
that  the  strongest  arguments  will  be  left.  Ordinarily  it  is 
better  policy  to  cut  out  whole  points  or  subpoints  than  to 
cut  down  the  time  for  each  argument.  Two  subtopics  well 
proved  are  worth  more  than  four  that  are  hurriedly  and  in- 
conclusively handled.  At  all  events,  the  speech  should  be 
brought  safely  within  the  limit,  with  time  to  spare  for  the 
introduction  of  refutation  material.    Nothing  spoils  the  effect 


274  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

of  a  good  speech  more  than  being  called  to  time  before 
finishing  the   most   important  part  —  the  conclusion. 

Using  References  and  Quotations.  The  notes  should  bear 
exact  references  to  evidence  which  might  be  called  into 
question,  and  these  references  should  be  stated.  Short  quo- 
tations should  be  read  verbatim  from  the  cards  ;  longer  ones 
may  be  read  from  larger  papers  or  from  books.  In  case 
maps  or  charts  are  to  be  used,  the  student  should  practice 
handling  them  as  they  will  be  used  before  the  audience. 

Avoiding  Changes  of  Plan.  Having  practiced  the  argu- 
ment faithfully,  the  student  should  not  allow  himself  to 
make  the  mistake  of  changing  radically  either  the  plan  or 
the  notes.  Changes  to  new  and  untried  cards  may  mean 
lack  of  confidence,  and  may  result  in  confusion. 

Good  Will  in  the  Contest.  The  debater  must  remember 
what  has  been  said  about  the  spirit  of  fairness  to  oppo- 
nents. He  should  direct  no  charges  against  his  opponents, 
but  should  concede  that  they  are  sincere  in  what  they  advance 
as  argument.    Arguments,  not  persons,  should  be  attacked. 

Fill  your  mind  with  the  thought  that  your  speech  ex- 
presses a  point  of  view  which  is  an  attempt  to  reach  the 
truth.  Remember  that  the  truth  can  hardly  be  found  with- 
out the  presentation  of  the  two  sides  and  the  testing  of 
opinion.  If  you  are  in  a  debate  with  the  idea  of  winning, 
remember  that  the  contest  is  for  the  purpose  of  seeing 
which  side  can  best  express  its  points  of  view.  The  debate 
is  legitimate  only  when  there  is  truth  on  both  sides,  and 
when  the  speakers  on  each  side  try  to  bring  out  the  most 
truth.  Rightly  used,  one  may  make  his  skill  in  argument 
serve  all  his  better  qualities  —  patience,  sympathy,  kindness, 
and  helpfulness. 


PRACTICE  FOR  THE  SPEECH  275 

EXERCISES 

1.  Use  a  brief  made  in  the  work  of  former  exercises.  Copy 
the  brief,  with  all  the  details — introductions,  conclusions,  refuta- 
tion, summaries,  references,  etc.  —  on  slips  of  paper  or  cards. 
Number  the  cards,  and  head  the  first  with  the  statement  of  the 
proposition.    Be  sure  that  the  subtopics  are  properly  indented. 

In  class  look  over  the  cards  of  other  students. 

2.  Using  the  cards  prepared  for  the  exercise  above,  practice 
giving  the  speech.  Say  it  over  at  least  four  times  before  giving  it 
in  class.  Make  the  speech  come  within  reasonable  time  —  say 
within  from  eight  to  sixteen  minutes.  It  would  be  a  good  exercise 
to  cut  down  the  speech  if  that  seems  advisable. 

3.  Select  a  point  which  can  best  be  proved  by  reference  to  a 
wall  map,  chart,  or  blackboard  drawing ;  for  example,  the  best 
route  for  a  railway,  the  best  location  for  a  building,  a  necessary 
improvement,  an  advantageous  place  for  a  fortification,  a  harbor,  or 
a  dock.  Practice  at  home.  Give  the  argument  to  the  class,  mak- 
ing your  use  of  the  help  as  natural,  clear,  and  effective  as  possible. 

4.  Select  a  point  which  can  best  be  shown  by  reading  quota- 
tions from  books  and  other  sources ;  for  example,  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  South  American  countries,  the  causes  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  the  benefit  of  labor  unions  to  the  worker,  the  unre- 
liability of  newspapers,  the  growth  of  the  peace  movement,  the 
purpose  of  the  boy-scout  movement.  Choose  three  or  more  books 
containing  good  quotations  to  read,  and  mark  the  places  with  slips 
of  paper.  Decide  on  the  order  of  the  quotations,  giving  the  best 
one  last.  Practice  the  talk  and  reading  several  times,  first  stating 
the  proposition  to  be  established,  then  picking  up  successively  the 
books  from  which  the  selections  are  to  be  read.  Give  the  titles, 
names  of  authors,  and  page  references  before  reading  the 
selections. 

5.  C'hoose  a  classmate  who  will  debate  against  you.  Decide  on 
the  proposition,  the  side  each  will  defend,  and  the  amount  of  time 


2/6  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

to  be  allotted  for  each  speaker.  The  following  are  suggested : 
affirmative,  six  minutes  for  opening  argument ;  negative,  eight 
minutes ;  affirmative  rebuttal,  four  minutes ;  negative  rebuttal, 
four  minutes;  affirmative  closing,  two  minutes.  Classmates  may 
be  selected  as  judges  if  desired.  Arrange  the  debate  a  few  days 
ahead,  so  that  you  may  make  proper  preparation. 

IV,    TEAMWORK  IN  DEBATE 

Preliminaries.  Up  to  this  point  we  have  had  exercises  in 
w^hich  one  person  gives  the  entire  argument.  We  shall  now 
discuss  the  ordinary  debate,  in  which  the  work  is  divided 
between  two  or  more  speakers  on  each  side.  For  con- 
venience in  giving  these  directions  we  shall  assume  that 
there  are  two  speakers  on  each  side,  and  that  there  are 
two  rounds  of  speeches  —  a  second  appearance  for  each 
speaker.  This  would  mean  a  constructive  argument  of  from 
five  to  fourteen  minutes  for  each  of  the  four  debaters, 
then  a  rebuttal  speech  of  from  three  to  eight  minutes  for 
each,  and  finally  a  closing  rebuttal  of  from  two  to  five 
minutes  for  the  first  affirmative  speaker. 

Dividing  the  Points,  The  division  of  the  points  between 
the  two  speakers  of  a  debating  team  will  be  determined  by 
the  order  of  the  points  and  the  relative  abilities  of  the 
speakers.  For  the  affirmative  side,  the  better  speaker  usu- 
ally comes  first,  for  he  then  opens  and  closes  the  debate. 
For  the  negative,  the  better  speaker  is  usually  placed  so  that 
he  will  have  the  last  negative  speech  ;  he  begins  just  as  the 
case  for  the  affirmative  has  been  completely  presented. 
Other  considerations  may  change  this  plan,  however ;  for 
example,  it  may  happen  that  one  speaker  is  particularly 
strong  on  the  practical  aspect  of  the  question,  and  it  therefore 


TEAMWORK  IN  DEBATE  277 

seems  best  that  he  lead  off  in  the  debate,  even  if  his  col- 
league is  the  more  experienced. 

Ordinarily  the  complete  brief  is  drawn  up  by  the  two 
speakers,  and  is  then  divided  into  two  parts  of  about  equal 
length.  If  the  question  has  three  issues  requiring  arguments 
of  about  equal  length,  the  affirmative  speakers  may  divide 
the  work  so  that  the  first  speaker  will  handle  the  introduc- 
tion and  the  first  point,  and  the  second  speaker  the  other 
two  points.  The  first  negative  speaker  may  deal  with  the 
first  two  issues,  or  the  two  which  seem  to  require  least  time, 
and  the  second  speaker  may  take  the  third  point,  with  extra 
time  for  rebuttal  and  conclusion.  Often,  however,  one  issue 
may  require  eight  minutes  and  another  but  three ;  hence  the 
relative  importance  of  the  issues,  as  well  as  their  number 
and  logical  order,  must  be  taken  into  account  in  apportion- 
ing the  part  of  the  debate  each  speaker  should  cover. 

Preparing  the  Debate  Together.  Both  speakers  on  each 
side  must  have  a  good  grasp  of  the  whole  case.  Both  must 
study  the  other  side  of  the  question.  Any  one  of  the  four 
speakers,  if  he  is  properly  prepared,  should  be  able  to  give 
the  reasons  for  any  main  point  in  the  debate,  affirmative  or 
negative.  When  the  debate  is  first  planned,  the  two  stu- 
dents on  the  same  side  should  begin  the  general  reading 
for  the  debate  together,  both  reading  the  articles  which  give 
the  larger  ideas  about  the  question.  When  this  reading  has 
reached  the  point  where  the  issues  become  apparent,  the 
two  colleagues  may  make  out  their  brief.  They  may  then 
make  a  provisional  division  of  the  points.  As  the  study 
proceeds,  the  brief  may  be  enlarged  and  amended,  and  the 
division  of  work  may  thus  become  more  definite.  The  read- 
ing of  each  student  may  now  be  confined  to  the  part  he  is 


2/8  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

to  handle,  although  he  must  constantly  be  on  the  lookout 
for  good  material  for  his  -colleague,  and  for  points  to  use 
in  refutation. 

We  have  already  discussed  how  the  debater  should  record 
his  evidence.  He  may  carry  with  him  a  number  of  cards 
or  slips  of  paper  of  convenient  size,  and  may  take  down 
evidence  for  his  colleague,  or  may  make  brief  memoranda 
which  will  tell  his  colleague  where  the  material  may  be 
found.  Each  point  for  refutation  should  be  written  at  the 
top  of  a  blank  card,  and  handled  as  explained  in  the  section 
on  refutation. 

The  two  students  may  profitably  go  together  for  inter- 
views ;  they  should  also  do  a  great  deal  of  informal  talking 
together  about  the  points  of  the  debate.  As  the  time  for 
the  debate  draws  near,  they  may  cooperate  in  drawing  up 
the  final  briefs,  in  deciding  where  to  enlarge  and  where  to 
omit,  in  working  out  the  introduction  and  conclusion,  in  pre- 
paring the  refutation  cards,  and  in  practicing  the  speeches. 

When  the  time  for  the  debate  arrives,  the  two  speakers  on 
each  side  sit  together,  having  at  hand  all  their  notes  and 
necessary  references.  The  rebuttal  notes  should  be  spread 
out  at  the  farther  side  of  the  table,  so  that  they  may  easily 
be  found  when  needed.  Books,  maps,  letters,  etc.,  may  be 
placed  at  one  side  where  they  can  be  consulted  easily. 
There  should  be  a  number  of  blank  cards  and  a  few  sheets 
of  paper,  and  each  speaker  should  be  provided  with  pen 
and  pencil. 

First  Affirmative.  The  first  speaker  must  of  course 
begin  with  the  introduction.  We  have  already  seen  that 
this  introduction  should  contain  no  statements  which  will 
be  disputed  by  either  side.     It  is  supposed  that  the  ideas 


TEAMWORK  IN  DEBATE  279 

advanced  about  the  importance  of  the  question,  the  history, 
the  definitions  of  terms  used,  and  the  statement  of  the  issues 
will  be  so  fair  that  on  them  both  the  affirmative  and  the 
negative  may  build  up  their  arguments.  Unless  disputed 
by  the  negative,  this  interpretation  of  the  proposition  will 
stand  throughout  the  debate. 

After  the  statement  of  the  issues  the  speaker  outlines 
what  the  affirmative  side  intends  to  prove  ;  he  indicates  at 
once,  also,  which  of  these  points  he  will  undertake  to 
prove,  and  which  will  be  handled  by  his  colleague.  He  is 
then  ready  to  proceed  to  the  proof  of  his  first  point. 

The  first  speaker  will  have  no  refutation  except  what  he  has 
incorporated  into  his  speech,  unless  he  chooses  to  anticipate  some 
of  his  opponents'  arguments.  This  is  sometimes  called  "  taking 
the  wind  out  of  the  opponents'  sails,"  for  the  speaker  tells  the 
audience  what  the  chief  claims  of  the  negative  speakers  will  be, 
and  attempts  to  show  the  fallacy  or  weakness  of  these  claims. 
It  seems  best  to  anticipate  in  this  way  only  when  the  opposing 
arguments  have  to  do  with  the  issues  raised  in  the  first  speech. 

Sometimes  it  is  a  good  plan  to  draw  up  and  submit  to  the 
opponents  a  question  on  some  definite  phase  of  the  proposition. 
The  question  may  be  read  to  the  audience  and  handed  to  the 
opponents  at  any  convenient  place,  provided  the  opponents  are 
given  time  for  a  careful  answer.  The  speaker's  colleague  must 
be  ready  to  refute  any  possible  answer.  If  no  answer  is  made, 
attention  should  be  called  to  that  fact  later  in  the  debate. 

After  the  speaker  has  finished  the  last  point  assigned 
him,  he  should  make  the  summary  of  the  case  of  the 
afifirmative  so  far  as  it  has  been  given.  He  should  then 
state  again  the  points  to  be  proved  by  the  second  affirma- 
tive speaker,  and  should  end  by  leading,  by  means  of  the 
word  therefore^  to  the  proposition  for  debate. 


28o  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

First  Negative.  A  large  sheet  of  paper  should  be  used 
by  one  of  the  negative  speakers  to  outline  the  case  of  the 
affirmative.  As  soon  as  the  first  speaker  begins,  his  intro- 
ductory material  should  be  examined  to  see  if  it  is  perfectly 
fair.  If  he  seems  to  give  inaccurate  or  misleading  defini- 
tions, or. to  state  the  issues  wrongly,  careful  notes  on  what 
he  says  should  be  taken.  His  main  points  should  then  be 
noted  as  they  are  first  given,  with  a  space  after  each  in 
which  to  write  the  subtopics.  If  the  prospective  summary 
is  omitted,  or  is  given  so  poorly  that  the  points  cannot  be 
recorded,  this  will  probably  mean  that  the  hearers  will  not 
•get  a  clear  idea  of  what  the  speaker  is  trying  to  prove. 
The  negative  speakers,  in  any  case,  should  do  their  best  to 
analyze  the  affirmative  argument  and  to  make  the  recorded 
notes  as  full  as  convenient.  Whenever  a  strong  point  is 
made,  it  should  be  noted  at  the  top  of  a  blank  card  ;  or 
a  card  already  prepared  for  refutation  should  be  used  if 
it  contains  an  appropriate  answer.  Answers  to  matters  of 
interpretation  should  be  prepared  first,  if  any  are  needed. 
Points  written  on  cards  may  be  followed  by  brief  answers, 
by  references  or  notes  indicating  the  proof  of  these  answers, 
and  by  memoranda  on  the  meaning  of,  or  the  conclusion  to 
be  drawn  from,  these  answers.  All  such  cards  as  are  to  be 
used  may  be  put  among  the  cards  which  coniain  the  brief 
of  the  speech. 

Matters  of  interpretation  must  be  cleared  up  first ;  the  very 
first  sentence  should  deal  with  errors  in  definition  and  mis- 
statements of  the  issues,  if  there  are  any.  It  is  useless  for  the 
argument  to  proceed  if  the  subject  is  not  agreed  upon,  for  it  is 
impossible  to  argue  upon  an  indefinite  or  changing  subject.  Sup- 
pose the  subject  for  debate  is,  "  Resolved,   that  the  protective 


TEAMWORK  IN  DEBATE  281 

tariff  is  a  benefit  to  the  nation,"  and  that  the  first  affirmative  has 
taken  the  term  '  protective  tariff '  to  mean  the  schedule  of  rates 
in  force  at  the  present  time.  If  the  negative  side  understands 
'  protective  tariff '  to  mean  the  principle  of  the  protective  tariff, 
regardless  of  the  present  detailed  set  of  rates,  then  it  will  be 
useless  to  proceed  with  the  debate  until  meanings  are  agreed 
upon.  The  first  negative  speaker,  then,  before  he  refutes  any 
argument  or  proceeds  with  his  own  points,  must  show  that  '  pro- 
tective tariff'  does  not  mean  the  present  rates,  but  the  general 
principle  of  protection. 

In  most  debates  no  such  misunderstandings  will  occur, 
and  no  mention  of  the  introductory  matter  should  be  made 
by  the  negative  speakers  unless  serious  correction  is  needed. 
]f  the  issues  are  misstated,  the  negative  speaker  may  state 
them  correctly,  and  show  the  audience  what  points  the 
aflfirmative  side  must  prove  in  order  to  establish  its  case. 

These  matters  being  disposed  of,  the  first  duty  of  the 
negative  speaker  is  to  attempt  partially  or  wholly  to  break 
the  force  or  the  strong  points  of  the  afhrmative.  He  must 
not  fail  to  say  something  in  reply  to  those  two  or  three 
points  which  seem  to  have  made  an  impression  on  the 
audience.  If  he  does  so  fail,  many  of  the  hearers  are  sure 
to  think  that  no  answer  can  be  given,  and  will  score  a  large 
burden  of  proof  against  the  negative,  no  matter  how  strong 
the  subsequent  argument  may  be. 

The  best  way  to  break  the  force  of  an  opposing  point  is 
to  accept  the  issue  at  once.  If  the  point  raised  will  be 
answered  either  in  the  present  speech  or  in  the  second 
negative  speech,  this  should  be  stated,  so  that  when  the 
point  comes  up  again  the  hearers  will  be  prepared  for  it. 
If  the  point  will  be  handled  in  one  of  the  rebuttal  speeches, 


282  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

that  fact  should  be  stated.  If  the  point  can  profitably  be 
disposed  of  at  once,  it  should  be  refuted  before  the  regularly 
planned  portion  of  the  speech  is  begun. 

If  the  first  speaker  for  the  affirmative  has  tried  to  do  any 
advance  refutation,  point  out  to  the  hearers  that  this  shows 
that  he  recognizes  these  points  as  formidable  arguments. 

Having  cleared  up  questions  of  interpretation,  if  there 
are  any,  and  having  refuted,  or  shown  how  they  will  be 
refuted,  the  leading  contentions  of  the  affirmative,  then, 
and  not  until  then,  the  prepared  outline  of  points  for  the 
first  negative  speech  may  be  followed.  The  full  case  for 
the  negative  should  be  outlined  to  the  audience  at  the  out- 
set, and  the  hearers  must  be  told  which  parts  of  the  case 
each  speaker  will  try  to  establish.  The  debater  must  remem- 
ber, when  he  comes  to  that  part  of  the  speech  in  which  he 
covers  a  point  that  he  is  refuting,  to  call  attention  to  the 
exact  point  the  argument  answers.  The  speech  should  end 
with  a  summary  of  what  has  been  proved,  and  of  that  which 
will  be  proved  by  the  other  speaker. 

Second  Speakers.  While  the  first  negative  speaker  has 
the  floor,  an  outline  of  his  argument  should  be  recorded  by 
the  affirmative  debaters.  Matters  of  interpretation,  notes 
for  answers,  and  refutation  cards  may  be  handled  in  the 
manner  already  explained.  The  constructive  argument  of 
the  second  affirmative  speaker  should  open  with  a  statement- 
of  the  points  which  were  proved  by  the  first  affirmative 
speaker,  following  which  the  prospective  summary  for  the 
present  speech  is  given.  The  conclusion  may  include  a 
review  of  the  contentions  of  the  negative,  so  far  as  given  or 
indicated  ;  a  complete  summary  of  the  case  of  the  affirma- 
tive ;  and  an  appeal  for  adherence  to  the  principles  advocated. 


TEAMWORK  IN  DEBATE  283 

The  second  negative  speaker  should  be  guided  by  the 
same  general  plan.  He  should  call  attention  to  the  faults 
in  the  argument  of  the  affirmative  speakers,  particularly 
where  important  issues  have  been  omitted  or  otherwise 
avoided  ;  and  the  consequences  of  these  faults  should  be 
pointed  out.  His  review  of  the  opposite  case,  and  the  sum- 
ming up  of  the  case  for  the  negative,  should  be  clear  and 
conclusive.  Both  should  deal  with  large  issues,  and  not 
with  details  of  the  argument.  Then  may  come  the  appeal 
for  the  principles  advocated  by  the  negative. 

The  second  negative  speaker  may  propose  other  solutions  of  the 
question,  in  place  of  the  one  for  debate.  This  the  negative  has  a 
right  to  do,  and  the  affirmative  is  obliged  to  show  that  its  own 
proposition,  as  stated  in  the  debate,  is  better  than  any  and  all  put 
up  for  consideration  by  the  negative.  Where  should  this  proposal 
of  alternate  plans  be  made  .-'  Some  debaters  seem  to  think  that  the 
right  place  to  introduce  this  is  at  the  end  of  the  speech,  "  so  that 
the  afiirmative  will  not  have  time  to  think  up  an  answer."  Such 
a  trick  is  both  stupid  and  unfair.  One  may  be  sure  that  the  audi- 
ence and  the  judges  will  not  sympathize  with  such  a  scheme.  It  is 
best  to  put  forth  the  alternatives  early,  so  that  they  may  have  the 
test  of  refutation  and  the  advantage  of  later  repetition  and 
fortification. 

Rebuttal  Speeches.  Four  speeches  will  now  have  been 
given,  and  the  debate  might  end  with  the  affirmative  re- 
buttal. But  it  is  far  better  that  each  speaker  should  have 
another  chance  to  appear,  especially  to  discuss  disputed 
points  which  have  arisen  during  the  debate.  In  common 
fairness  it  is  understood  that  rebuttal  speeches  shall  not 
contain  new  evidence  or  new  lines  of  argument  unless  these 
are  used  for  purposes  of  refutation. 


284  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

Debaters  on  each  side  should  cooperate  in  the  selection  of  the 
disputed  points  to  be  refuted.  This  selection  is  the  most  impor- 
tant task  the  debaters  have.  They  should  note  down  all  the  points 
which  might  be  answered,  and  then  select  as  many  of  the  impor- 
tant ones  as  there  will  be  time  to  consider.  In  many  debates  there 
will  develop,  as  the  argument  proceeds,  one  leading  issue  which 
overshadows  in  importance  all  the  others,  and  the  argument  must 
be  concentrated  on  this  point.  Two  such  issues  which  often  out- 
weigh the  others  are  the  practicability  of  the  affirmative  contention, 
and  the  value  of  an  alternative  plan  presented  by  the  negative. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  each  debater  will  handle  in  his 
rebuttal  speech  those  points  which  relate  to  the  issues  he  handles 
in  his  first  speech. 

Communication  between  team  mates  should  be  limited,  for  four 
reasons:  (i)  the  debaters  are  likely  to  disturb  others;  (2)  they 
are  likely  to  appear  discourteous  to  the  other  side ;  (3)  by  even  a 
moment's  conference  they  may  miss  a  remark  made  by  the  oppo- 
nents, which,  if  unanswered,  might  mean  the  loss  of  the  debate; 
(4)  by  talking  to  his  colleague  at  a  critical  moment  there  is 
danger  of  confusing  him.  A  briefly  worded  suggestion  written  at 
the  top  of  one  of  the  cards  can  be  given  to  one's  colleague  at 
any  time  without  interfering  with  his  thoughts,  and  this  same  card 
may  be  used  in  the  talk  before  the  audience. 

When  the  debater  steps  before  the  audience  for  his  rebuttal 
speech,  the  order  of  the  cards  held  in  his  hand  will  indicate  the 
outline  he  is  to  follow.  Generally  stated,  the  first  point  handled 
should  be  the  one  most  in  the  minds  of  the  hearers.  It  is  unneces- 
sary' to  give  a  prospective  outline  for  a  rebuttal  speech.  As  the 
speech  draws  to  an  end,  there  may  be  given  a  review  of  the  whole 
case  of  the  opposition,  as  it  then  stands  in  the  light  of  the  refuta- 
tion. The  last  negative  speaker  should  again  sum  up  the  case  for 
the  negative,  and  may  finish  with  a  sentence  of  appeal.  The  last 
speech  of  all  will  be  the  third  speech  for  the  first  affirmative 
speaker,  who  may  spend  most  of  his  time  in  refutation,  but  should 
also  end  with  a  review  and  a  summary,  and  perhaps  an  appeal. 


TEAMWORK  IN  DEBATE  285 

Rebuttal  speeches  should  of  course  proceed  at  once  to  the 
answering  of  opposing  argument.  In  this  answering,  two  duties 
will  be  found  necessary :  direct  refutation  of  arguments  advanced 
by  the  opponents,  and  the  fortification  of  one's  own  arguments 
which  have  been  attacked.  The  negative  speakers  will  spend  most 
of  the  time  of  their  rebuttal  speeches  in  ordinary  refutation ;  the 
affirmative  will  spend  most  of  theirs  in  strengthening  positions  which 
have  been  disputed.  This  strengthening  may  be  accomplished  by 
stating  carefully  the  point  that  has  been  attacked,  by  stating  the 
attempted  answer,  by  reviewing  and  amplifying  the  evidence  in 
support  of  the  point,  and,  if  possible,  by  offering  new  evidence  in 
its  support.  In  any  case,  the  speaker  may  attempt  to  show  that 
although  the  opposing  arguments  have  weight,  they  are  of  less 
importance  than  those  offered  on  his  side. 

Debaters  must  use  their  combined  efforts  to  break  down  the 
force  of  such  striking  arguments  as  are  made  by  means  of  analo- 
gies, other  figures  of  speech,  illustrations,  jokes  which  apply  to 
the  issue,  charts,  or  maps.  A  clever  use  of  one  of  these  devices, 
unless  it  is  answered,  may  easily  win  the  debate. 

Cooperation.  Both  in  practice  and  in  the  debate  the  two 
speakers  may  help  each  other  plan  their  talks  so  that  they 
will  not  run  over  the  time  allotted.  One's  partner  can  be  of 
most  help  in  looking  over  the  cards  to  be  used  in  a  rebuttal 
speech,  for  he  can  judge  how  long  the  various  refutations 
will  take,  and  can  urge  that  not  too  much  be  attempted. 

If  the  debaters  have  had  an  opportunity  to  practice  giving 
their  refutation  from  the  cards  they  have  prepared  in  ad- 
vance, these  cards  may  each  be  marked  with  the  approxi- 
mate time  it  will  take.  Each  debater  may  arrange  with  the 
timekeepers  to  give  him  a  signal  two  minutes  before  his 
time  is  up.  He  may  mark  on  his  cards  where  he  should 
be  when  the  two-minute  signal  is  given.    If  the  debater  is 


286  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

pressed  for  time,  he  had  better  be  sure  of  his  conclusion, 
even  if  he  has  to  slight  the  proof  of  his  final  argument. 
A  speaker  should  never  be  guilty  of  running  past  his  time, 
except  to  finish  a  sentence.  One  who  steals  time  in  a 
debate  makes  an  error  similar  to  that  of  a  hundred-yard 
runner  who  purposely  "breaks"  and  has  only  99  yards 
to  run. 

In  Appendix  I  are  plans  for  simultaneous  debates.  If  four  per- 
sons work  together  in  the  preparation  of  a  debate,  there  can  be 
added  to  the  teamwork  the  following  items :  striking  pieces  of 
evidence  and  argument  on  one  side  of  the  question  may  be  written 
in  duplicate,  and  one  copy  handed  to  the  team  which  is  to  take  the 
other  side  of  the  argument  at  the  opposing  school ;  the  four  de- 
baters may  do  a  large  amount  of  discussing  and  arguing  with  each 
other ;  the  two  sides  may  practice  against  each  other ;  and  the 
four  debaters  may  work  together  in  preparing  for  the  refutation, 
the  arguments  of  one  side  forming  the  points  to  be  refuted  by 
the  other  side. 

Teamwork  means  helpfulness.  Let  the  cooperation  of 
the  debaters  be  a  competition  of  service.  Let  the  one  make 
it  a  practice  to  keep  the  other's  needs  in  mind  as  he  searches 
for  his  own  material ;  let  him  patiently  aid  in  the  planning 
and  the  practicing  of  his  colleague's  speech  ;  and  during 
the  debate  let  him  be  an  inspiration  in  calmness,  good 
judgment,   and   confidence. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Choose  a  partner,  and  with  him  find  two  other  students  who 
will  agree  to  debate  against  you.  Decide  on  the  question  and  the 
sides.  Study  the  proposition  with  your  colleague,  and  decide  on 
the  division  of  points.  Be  ready  to  tell  what  plans  have  been  made 
for  the  teamwork  in  the  division  of  the  argument,  and  in  the  study 


TEAMWORK  IN  DEBATE  287 

for  the  debate.    Let  the  first  affirmative  speaker  tell  his  plans,  then 
the  second  affirmative,  and  finally  the  two  negative  speakers. 

2.  Plan  to  give  the  debate  for  which  you  have  just  made  prepa- 
ration. So  far  as  possible  try  to  keep  in  mind  the  main  principles 
which  this  chapter  has  set  forth.  Use  the  following  time  schedule  : 
first  speeches,  eight  minutes  ;  rebuttal  speeches,  four  minutes  ;  final 
speech,  two  minutes.    Judges  may  be  selected  if  desired. 

3.  Let  four  students  meet  and  agree  on  a  question,  the  sides, 
the  length  of  speeches,  and  the  date.  Then  let  the  two  sides  study 
without  consultation,  and  hold  the  debate  before  the  class. 

4.  Let  eight  students  meet  and  agree  on  a  question.  Let  four 
of  them  take  the  affirmative,  and  four  the  negative.  Two  from 
each  side  should  constitute  themselves  a  team  for  a  simultaneous 
debate  against  the  other  four.  The  date,  the  length  of  speeches, 
and  the  two  places  for  the  separate  contests  should  be  decided. 
The  four  team  mates  should  then  prepare  for  the  debates.  The 
debates  may  be  held  at  the  same  time. 

5.  Draw  up  an  agreement  for  a  debate  witli  another  school. 
Make  it  as  definite  as  possible,  yet  at  the  same  time  do  not 
make  it  longer  than  necessar}\  Bring  it  to  class  for  criticism  and 
comparison.    (See  Appendix  L) 

Two  or  more  students  may  each  represent  a  different  school, 
and,  comparing  their  plans,  may  come  to  a  joint  agreement.  These 
joint  agreements  should  be  read  and  criticized. 

6.  Draw  up  a  notice  for  a  try-out,  and  bring  it  to  class  for 
comparison  and  criticism.  If  this  exercise  is  based  on  an  actual 
debate,  so  much  the  better. 

7.  Prepare  a  judge's  blank  for  a  debate.  See  that  it  is  neatly 
done  and  attractively  arranged.    Bring  it  to  class  for  criticism. 

8.  Serve  as  chairman,  or  timekeeper,  or  member  of  a  com- 
mittee of  arrangements,  or  judge,  and  prepare  a  short  talk  about 
the  experience  gained.  If  it  is  impossible  to  get  the  actual  expe- 
rience, make  close  observation  of  the  work  of  someone  else,  and 
then  base  the  report  on  that  observation. 


288  ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATE 

9.  Come  to  class  prepared  to  contribute  something  vital  to  a 
discussion  on  this  topic :    "  The  best  plan  for  a  debating  league." 

10.  Draw  up  a  notice  which  may  be  posted  to  announce  an 
interclass  tournament.  Make  it  such  that  it  will  attract  pupils  to 
enter  the  contest.    Bring  the  notice  to  class  for  criticism. 

11.  Prepare  a  speech  to  be  given  before  students  not  yet  inter- 
ested in  debating,  telling  of  the  value  of  debating,  and  how  one  may 
begin.  Arrange  to  give  the  talk  in  one  of  the  other  classes.  If  any 
of  the  students  have  shown  interest,  they  should  be  seen  personally 
and  invited  to  visit  the  debating  society  and  to  take  part  in  a 
try-out. 

12.  Prepare  a  speech  to  give  in  class  on  the  following  topic: 
"  How  debating  in  the  school  may  be  improved." 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

I.    GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

The  books  on  parliamentary  law  are  necessarily  so  com- 
plete and  technical  that  the  subject  is  uninteresting  to  the 
beginner,  whereas  it  ought  to  be  attractive  to  students  of  all 
ages.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  give  the  necessary 
first  information  in  condensed  form.  We  shall  deal  here 
with  the  general  directions  for  practice  in  business  meet- 
ings, and  later  with  necessary  tables  and  forms,  together 
with  suggestions  for  their  use. 

The  Origin  of  Parliamentary  Law.  For  many  centuries 
the  rules  of  public  speaking  have  been  gradually  developed. 
They  reached  a  high  plane  during  the  eighteenth  century 
in  the  English  House  of  Commons,  whence  the  name  par- 
liamentary. The  rules  of  our  American  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives were  borrowed  from  England,  but  have  been 
changed  to  meet  our  needs.  Jefferson's  Manual  is  the 
basis  of  all  American  practice.  Books  of  rules  used  in  or- 
dinary societies  are  simplifications  of  these  rules  of  govern- 
mental bodies. 

Why  Parliamentary  Law  is  Needed.  Parliamentary  law  is 
important  in  Oral  English  because  it  formulates  the  rules 
that  are  used  to  manage  public  speaking.  It  is  needed 
in  school  and  college  meetings,  in  social  clubs,  in  athletic 

289 


290  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

leagues,  in  literary  societies,  in  religious  organizations,  in 
educational  associations,  in  political  clubs,  in  labor  unions, 
in  the  meetings  of  boards  of  directors,  in  city  councils,  in 
state  legislatures,  in  national  congresses,  in  international 
conferences  —  in  almost  all  organizations  in  which  people 
work  together. 

When  rightly  pursued,  practice  in  business  meetings  gives 
valuable  training  in  (i)  readiness  in  speaking,  for  many 
questions  must  be  debated  without  time  for  preparation ; 
(2)  efficiency  iii  speaking,  for  one  must  summon  to  his  aid 
all  the  powers  of  persuasion  at  his  command ;  (3)  a  sense 
of  order  in  a  public  assembly,  for  each  speech  and  motion 
and  act  must  have  its  proper  place  if  it  is  not  to  be  ruled 
out  of  order ;  (4)  control  of  temper,  for  heat  and  anger  lead 
one  into  rule-breaking,  with  its  consequent  loss  of  respect ; 
(5)  fairness  to  opponents,  for  the  rules  of  order  require  it, 
and  the  freedom  of  debate  exposes  misstatement  and  makes 
it  react  upon  the  speaker.  Again,  if  the  motions  are  well 
chosen,  parliamentary  practice  will  help  to  make  the  stu- 
dent acquainted  with  city,  county,  state,  and  national  affairs, 
and  to  increase  his  interest  in  economics,  politics,  and  soci- 
ology. Moreover,  it  gives  him  practice  in  serving  as  chair- 
man, as  secretary,  and  as  committee  member.  He  will  be 
a  valuable  help  to  any  society  if  he  can  preside  well,  or 
write  the  minutes  correctly,  or  work  up  a  good  committee 
report.  And  best  of  all,  the  business  meetings  should  help 
to  develop  true  democracy  of  spirit ;  for  parliamentary  law  is 
based  on  equality  of  members,  officers  as  servants,  and  the 
rule  of  the  majority.  It  trains  not  solely  in  leading  but 
in  following  also,  and  it  has  the  great  advantage  that  the 
person  who  at  one  meeting  is   leading  and  may  rule,  at 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  291 

another  is  following  and  must  obey.   This  ability  both  to  lead 
and  to  follow  will  make  for  the  best  American  citizenship. 

When  Parliamentary  Law  is  Used.  Parliamentary  law  is 
employed  whenever  it  will  give  system  and  good  order  to  a 
gathering.  So  small  a  group  of  people  as  four  or  five  may 
need  rules  of  procedure  in  order  to  carry  on  debate.  Ram- 
bling discussion,  disputing,  and  interminable  talk  are  likely 
to  characterize  a  meeting  held  without  rules.  With  rules 
two  things  will  be  at  once  accomplished  :  only  one  topic 
will  be  under  consideration  at  any  one  time,  and  only  one 
person  at  a  time  will  be  speaking. 

Probabh'  in  most  meetings  the  will  of  the  majority  is 
found  only  after  earnest  debate  and  definite  vote.  In  other 
meetings,  however,  the  members  of  even  a  large  audience 
may  be  in  such  harmony  of  thought  that  neither  debating 
nor  the  passing  of  motions  is  needed.  Here  the  strict  rules 
ot  parliamentary  law  may  be  dispensed  with.  The  rules  should 
be  avoided  when  they  interfere  with  quick  action  desired 
by  all.  See  Robert's  "Rules  of  Order,"  pp.  161,  188,  194 
(rev.  ed.  pp.  198,  202,  241);  and  Gregg's  "Parliamentary 
Law,"  pp.  10,  50,  63,  90.  The  will  of  the  society  is  legal 
regardless  of  parliamentary  law,  so  long  as  any  informal 
action  is  not  protested  at  the  time  it  is  taken.  The  rules 
form  the  best  guide  for  finding  out  and  expressing  the  will 
of  the  meeting  when  there  is  a  conflict  of  opinion,  and  they 
may  be  set  aside  for  any  act  about  which  there  is  complete 
agreement. 

Courtesy  in  Business  Meetings.  Occasionally  there  is  a 
person  who  is  discourteous  in  business  meetings,  on  account 
of  his  habit  of  correcting  the  chairman  or  others  whenever 
a  possible  chance  offers  itself.    Such  a  person  has  studied 


292  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

up  a  few  points,  and  is  anxious  to  display  his  knowledge. 
He  may  not  always  mean  to  be  rude,  but  he  makes  the 
mistake  of  placing  the  rules  and  his  knowledge  of  them 
above  the  good  of  the  society.  It  is  possible  that  in  our 
parliamentary  classes  in  Oral  English  it  will  be  an  advan- 
tage to  see  that  no  actual  error  escapes  us.  But  no  student 
should  obtain  from  his  school  study  the  idea  that  parlia- 
mentary law  is  a  set  of  hard-and-fast  rules.  It  must  guide 
and  serve  the  purposes  of  a  meeting,  but  not  interfere  with 
these  purposes.  And  even  when  corrections  are  to  be  made 
in  the  classroom,  they  should  be  made  with  all  the  defer- 
ence and  politeness  of  the  Golden  Rule.  '"  Mr.  Chairman, 
you  made  a  mistake,"  is  both  impolite  and  unparliamentary. 
"  Mr.  Chairman,  I  think  we  are  not  following  the  correct 
rule  about  closing  nominations,"  or  "  Mr.  Chairman,  my 
point  is  that  the  rule  about  closing  nominations  is  being 
violated,"  is  satisfactory. 

The  members  of  a  business  meeting  need  to  exercise 
care  to  control  their  feelings  and  their  "  tone  of  voice." 
An  angry  or  anxious  sound  in  the  speaker's  voice  may 
unintentionally  breed  discourtesy  and  misunderstanding. 
Modesty,  coolness  of  temper,  and  a  pleasant  countenance, 
together  with  a  proper  regard  for  the  feelings  of  others 
and  a  willingness  to  ignore  little  errors  which  do  no  harm, 
are  important  assets  for  members  of  any  society. 

How  to  use  Parliamentary  Law.^  It  is  the  purpose  here 
merely  to  make  some  suggestions  for  the  use  of  parlia- 
mentary law  in  school  and  college  classes,  and  to  outline  a 

1  To  THE  Teacher.  The  teacher  is  responsible  to  the  school  and  to 
the  citizens  for  the  good  conduct  of  the  class  and  for  the  good  use  of  time. 
He  cannot,  therefore,  unreservedly  give  over  all  supervision.    He  will  need, 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  293 

method  which  has  repeatedly  succeeded  in  furnishing  the 
right  situations  for  studying  the  rules  and  for  learning  the 
lessons  of  good  speaking,  fairness,  and  democracy. 

How  to  organize  the  Class.  When  it  is  decided  that  the 
class  may  organize,  the  steps  outlined  on  page  296  must  be 
taken.  Perhaps  the  name  and  purpose  of  the  society  are  of 
such  importance  that  the  whole  class  will  wish  to  decide 
on  them  and  to  instruct  the  constitution  committee  to  write 
them  into  the  report.  The  name  given  the  society  should 
indicate  the  subjects  about  which  motions  are  to  be  made 
in  the  business  meetings.  For  example,  if  "  The  Speakers' 
Club  "  is  selected,  the  range  of  motions  would  be  unlimited  : 
politics,  education,  business,  civics,  etc.  "  The  West  Side 
Improvement  Association,"  however,  would  be  concerned 
almost  solely  with  the  civic  affairs  of  one  section  of  the 
city.  Civic  affairs  usually  form  the  best-known  field  of  inter- 
est, and  the  organization  selected  for  beginners  may  well  be 
one  supposed  to  legislate  for  the  city.  Other  good  names 
may  be  suggested  by  the  following,  which  have  been  used 
in  Oral  English  classes  :  Senate,  House  of  Representatives, 
State  Assembly,  President's  Cabinet,  Republican  Central 
Committee,  City  Council,  City  Board  of  Commissioners, 
Civics  League,  Panama  Literary  Society,  American  Scientific 
Society,  Hague  Peace  Conference.  It  is  profitless,  however, 
in  choosing  the  offices  and  rules,  to  pattern  closely  the 
constitution  and  rules  of  a  real  organization.    The  maze  of 

first,  to  prescribe  somewhat  the  form  of  the  constitution  and  rules  ;  second, 
to  see  that  officers  and  members  use  these  rules;  third,  to  give  helpful 
guidance  to  the  class  and  to  individuals ;  fourth,  to  interfere  if  serious 
errors  are  made  ;  fifth,  to  take  complete  charge  if  the  students  fail  to  make 
a  success  of  the  society.  The  teacher  may  act  as  a  member  of  the  society, 
debating  and  voting  with  the  others. 


294  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

technical  forms  in  city,  state,  and  national  organizations  offers 
hard  and  unprofitable  traveling. 

The  Programs.  For  the  program  of  the  business  meet- 
ings it  is  recommended  that  only  a  brief  time  be  given  each 
day  to  practice  with  motions.  Ten  or  fifteen  minutes  of 
parliamentary  law  each  recitation  day  accomplishes  more  in 
a  semester  than  the  same  amount  of  time  taken  in  longer 
periods.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  have  a  program  of  five  to 
ten  talks,  covering  perhaps  half  the  period,  and  to  follow 
the  program  with  the  motions.  These  programs  may  be 
made  up  by  the  teacher,  who  may  each  day  list  the  names 
of  students  expected  to  take  part  in  the  next  meeting,  and 
hand  them  to  the  secretary.  Or  a  committee  on  program 
may  select  those  who  are  to  take  part,  and  assign  a  topic 
or  topics  for  the  meeting.  Or  the  chairman  may  arbitrarily 
call  upon  members  to  come  forward  and  take  part.  The 
topics  may  be  chosen  from  the  various  exercises  suggested 
in  this  or  any  other  book.  Some  of  them  may  consist  of 
explanations  of  points  in  this  chapter.  By  having  the  pro- 
gram occupy  the  first  part  of  the  recitation  period,  the 
members  get  practice  both  in  making  definitely  prepared 
speeches  and  in  parliamentary  law,  and  thus  follow  the 
example  of  many  organizations  which  combine  program 
and  business  in  the  same  meeting. 

Studying  the  Precedence  of  Motions. ^  The  student  should 
study  thoroughly  Table  B  (the  table  of  seven  motions)  in 
Appendix  VI.    When  he  has  mastered  these  he  may  use 

1  No  formal  exercises  have  been  provided  for  this  chapter.  Perhaps  the 
best  plan  to  follow  will  be  to  assign  to  individual  students  points  which 
need  illustration,  and  then  for  each  student  to  study  the  item  assigned  him, 
to  explain  its  principles  in  class,  and  finally  to  apply  the  point  in  the  midst 
of  a  business  meeting. 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  295 

the  larger  list,  Table  C.  He  should  next  study  the  brief 
explanation  of  each  motion,  pages  306-320  below,  asking 
questions  of  classmates  and  teacher,  and  referring  to  other 
books  on  parliamentary  law  if  there  are  any  disputed  points. 
Students  should  try  to  apply  all  they  read,  regardless  of 
mistakes  that  may  be  made.  Fortunately,  mistakes  in  par- 
liamentary law  are  easily  corrected  and  do  not  injure  any- 
body, and  we  often  learn  more  from  our  mistakes  than 
from  our  study. 

The  Kind  of  Motions  to  Make,  Occasionally,  perhaps 
twice  a  year,  it  is  interesting  to  have  a  burlesque  meeting ; 
but  meetings  of  this  character  will  not  teach  parliamentary 
law  as  it  should  be  taught.  Nothing  is  learned  from  the 
motion  that  each  member  be  required  to  sing  a  song,  or 
from  raising  a  question  of  privilege  to  have  a  window 
closed.  Such  motions  have  no  purpose,  and  needlessly 
complicate  the  society's  business  without  arriving  anywhere. 
Every  motion  placed  before  a  meeting  should  be  introduced 
because  the  mover  feels  that  it  ought  to  be  passed.  If  he 
moves  to  lay  on  the  table  the  question  before  the  house,  he 
should  have  a  definite  reason  for  this  motion.  If  he  does 
this  merely  "for  practice,"  he  is  not  learning  the  real  pur- 
pose and  use  of  the  motion.  Every  motion  should  be  the 
result  of  a  definite  need.  If  the  meeting  seems  to  lack 
good  subjects  for  the  main  motions,  turn  to  the  debate  sub- 
jects. Appendix  II,  or  to  the  lists  of  topics  in  Appendix  V. 
Almost  any  of  these  should  start  some  good  discussion 
from  coming  American  citizens. 

Fair  Play.  The  use  of  a  sergeant  at  arms  or  the  exer- 
cise of  the  authority  of  the  teacher  should  not  be  necessary 
in   an    Oral    English   society,   and   will    not    be    needed    if 


296  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

evetybody  will  try  to  live  up  to  the  rules.  If  a  player  enters 
a  baseball  game  he  submits  to  a  complicated  system  of  rules  ; 
so  a  person  in  a  business  meeting  must  submit  to  the  con- 
stitution, by-laws,  and  other  rules  of  the  society.  The  will 
of  the  majority  must  rule.  There  is  no  need  for  shouting 
"Aye"  or  "No,"  for  if  the  chairman  mistakes  the  volume 
of  sound,  any  member  may  call  for  a  division,  which  the 
chairman  must  grant.  If  he  rules  wrongly,  anyone  may 
raise  a  point  of  order,  and  m.ay  appeal  if  opposed. 

The  most  unfortunate  thing  that  can  happen  is  that  the 
person  who  refuses  to  do  his  part  fairly  occupies  the  chair. 
In  such  a  case  perhaps  a  revolution  is  necessary,  but  it  may 
be  without  force  or  noise,  by  withdrawing  to  another  room  or 
another  part  of  the  hall.  Anything  short  of  this  catastrophe 
can  be  settled  by  ordinary,  quiet  debate  and  majority  rule. 

"  All  things  in  good  order  "  is  the  first  and  last  word  in 
parliamentary  law  —  government  by  appropriate  and  reason- 
able rules  backed  by  a  spirit  of  fairness,  cooperation,  and 
mutual  respect,  and  expressed  by  the  rule  of  the  majority. 

II.    STEPS  IN  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  A  SOCIETY 

First  Meeting 

1.  Any  interested  person  takes  charge  and  moves  (or  someone 

else  may  move)  that  Mr. be  made  temporary  chairman,  and 

then  a  vote  is  taken. 

2.  The  temporary  secretary  is  appointed  or  elected. 

3.  Speeches  about  organizing  may  be  made. 

4.  A  motion  to  form  an  organization  may  be  moved,  made, 
and  voted. 

5.  A  motion  to  appoint  or  elect  an  organization  committee  is 
made  and  carried. 


CONSTITUTION  AND  RULES  297 

6.  The  committee  to  draw  up  a  constitution  and  by-laws  is 
selected. 

7.  Instructions  for  the  committee  may  be  voted:  name,  object, 
dues,  etc. 

8.  The  meeting  adjourns. 

Second  Meeting 

1.  The  temporary  chairman  calls  the  meeting  to  order. 

2.  The  minutes  are  read  and  accepted. 

3.  The  organization  committee  reports,  proposing  a  constitution 
and  by-laws. 

4.  The  chairman  of  the  committee,  or  any  other  person,  moves 
the  adoption  of  the  constitution. 

5.  The  chairman  of  the  meeting,  or  the  secretary,  reads  the 
first  section.  Amendments  may  be  proposed  and  voted  on.  The 
other  sections  may  be  amended  in  the  same  way. 

6.  The  motion  to  adopt  the  proposed  constitution,  as  amended, 
is  voted  on  and  carried. 

7.  The  members  may  take  a  recess  to  sign  the  constitution. 
(This  is  not  usually  required.) 

8.  The  proposed  by-laws  are  adopted,  following  the  process  in 
Nos.  4,  5,  and  6. 

9.  The  permanent  officers  are  elected,  and  take  their  places. 
The  organization  is  then  complete,  and  may  proceed  to  business. 

III.    CONSTITUTION,  BY-LAWS,  RULES  OF  ORDER, 
AND  STANDING  RULES 

The  constitution  of  an  organization  consists  of  the  rules 
which  determine  its  very  existence.  The  constitution  con- 
tains those  permanent  rules  which  are  intended  to  stand 
substantially  unchanged  during  the  life  of  the  society.  The 
by-lazvs  are  the  next  most  important  rules.  They  are  not 
important  enough  to  be  put  into  the  constitution,  yet  they 


298  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

are  usually  permanent.  The  rules  of  order  are  the  guide 
for  carrying  on  the  meetings  of  the  society.  Some  par- 
ticular published  rules  should  be  adopted.  Standing  ndes 
are  the  petty  understandings  made  for  the  comfort  and 
convenience  of  the  members ;  they  are  usually  matters  of 
agreement  which  may  easily  be  changed  or  set  aside  by  vote. 
The  sample  sets  of  laws  which  follow  are  intended  for 
the  organizations  formed  in  Oral  English  classes.  Their 
general  form,  however,  will  suggest  the  plan  by  which  the 
rules  of  all  organizations  are  constructed. 

The  Constitution  for  a  Class  Organization 

constitution  of  the  lincoln  club 

Article  I.    Name 
The  name  of  this  organization  shall  be  The  Lincoln  Club. 

Article  IL   Object 

The  object  of  the  club  shall  be  to  practice  public  speaking  and 
parliamentary  law. 

Article  IIL    Membership 

All  students  who  are  enrolled  in  class  No.  47  shall  be  considered 
members  of  the  club. 

Article  IV.   Officers 

Sec  I.  The  officers  of  this  club  shall  be  a  president,  secretary, 
and  critic. 

Sec.  2.  The  president  shall  be  elected  at  the  beginning  of  each 
meeting.  The  president  of  the  previous  meeting  shall  conduct  the 
election,  which  shall  be  without  ballot. 

Sec.  3.  The  secretary  and  the  critic  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
president. 

Sec.  4.  The  duties  of  the  officers  shall  be  those  indicated  by  their 
titles  and  prescribed  by  the  by-laws. 


CONSTITUTION  AND  RULES  299 

Article  V.   Meetings 

Meetings  shall  be  held  every  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday,  at 
1.45  P.Ji.,  in  Room  63. 

Article  VI.    Amendments 

This  constitution  may  be  amended  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  provided 
written  notice  has  been  given  at  a  previous  meeting. 

Article  VII.   Authority 

It  is  understood  that  the  acts  of  this  organization  are  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  teacher,  who  may  at  any  time  take  charge  of 
the  meeting. 


'&• 


The  constitutions  of  other  organizations  may  vary  from  the 
above  form  in  several  particulars : 

The  name  and  object  may  be  written  into  a  preamble  (see  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States). 

The  article  on  members  may  be  divided  into  sections,  defining 
active,  associate,  and  honorary  members. 

The  article  on  the  officers  may  designate  many  other  officers 
which  will  be  necessary  to  a  real  society.  Other  sections  will  fix 
the  manner  of  nomination  and  election,  and  the  term  of  service  of 
the  officers. 

Article  V  may  provide  for  regular  meetings  and  special  meetings, 
the  latter  to  be  called  by  the  president,  or  at  the  request  of  five  or 
more  members. 

Other  matters  should  be  left  to  the  by-laws  and  the  standing 
rules. 


300  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

By-Laws  for  a  Class  Organization 

BY-LAWS   OF  THE   LINCOLN  CLUB 

Article  L    Officers 

Sec.  I.  No  person  shall  serve  in  any  one  office  for  more  than 
one  meeting. 

Sec.  2.  A  majority  of  the  votes  cast  shall  be  necessary  to  elect  the 
president.  If  the  first  vote  does  not  yield  a  majority,  the  second  vote 
shall  be  taken  on  the  two  candidates  who  have  received  the  highest 
number  of  votes. 

Sec.  3.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president  or  the  chairman  to 
uphold  the  constitution,  laws,  and  rules  of  this  organization.  He  shall 
declare  out  of  order  and  suppress  any  acts  and  motions  not  in  harmony 
with  the  purposes  of  the  organization.  He  shall  have  the  right  to 
appoint  a  member  to  act  as  sergeant  at  arms  whenever  he  deems  such 
an  officer  necessary. 

Sec.  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  assist  the  chairman 
by  keeping  a  record  of  all  business  proposed,  and  to  write  the  minutes 
of  the  meeting.  He  shall  see  that  the  records  of  the  organization  are 
properly  kept  on  file. 

Sec.  5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  critic  to  criticize  the  meeting. 
He  shall  commend  the  good  talks,  and  offer  suggestions  to  individuals 
and  to  the  organization  as  a  whole. 

Article  IL    Meetings 

Sec.  I .  The  order  of  business  shall  be  as  follows  :  choice  of  officers, 
roll  call,  minutes,  critic's  report,  program,  reports  of  committees,  old 
business,  new  business.  This  order  may  be  changed  for  any  meeting 
by  a  two-thirds  vote. 

Sec.  2.  The  programs  presented  by  the  members  may  be  deter- 
mined by  vote  of  the  organization,  by  an  authorized  committee,  or  by 
the  teacher.  In  all  other  cases  each  member  taking  part  shall  be  allowed 
to  select  his  own  topic. 

Sec.  3.    The  rules  contained  in shall  govern  this  organization 

and  its  meetings  in  all  points  not  provided  for  by  the  constitution,  by- 
laws, or  standing  rules. 


CONSTITUTION  AND  RULES  301 

Article  III.   Miscellaneous 

Sec.  I .  Standing  rules  of  this  organization  may  be  passed,  amended, 
suspended,  or  abolished  by  a  majority  vote  at  any  meeting. 

Sec.  2.  One  half  the  number  of  regular  members  shall  constitute 
a  quorum. 

Sec.  3.  The  by-laws  of  this  organization  may  be  amended  by  a 
majority  vote  at  any  meeting,  provided  written  notice  has  been  given 
at  a  previous  meeting. 

Two  other  matters  will  appear  in  the  by-laws  of  most  organiza- 
tions:  the  amount  and  manner  of  collection  of  dues,  and  the 
names  of  the  standing  committees.    ■ 

Standing  Rules  for  a  Class  Organization 

STANDING   RULES   OF   THE   LINCOLN   CLUB 

1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  member  to  come  to  each  meeting 
prepared  to  speak  before  the  organization. 

2.  Unless  otherwise  provided  for,  reports  and  old  and  new  business 
shall  become  the  order  of  the  day  at  ten  minutes  before  the  time  for 
adjournment. 

3.  The  business  considered  by  this  organization  shall  involve  useful 
questions  only. 

4.  Motions  of  over  twenty  words  in  length  must  be  written  and 
handed  to  the  secretary. 

5.  At  the  request  of  the  chairman  any  member  debating  a  question 
shall  come  to  the  front  of  the  room. 

6.  The  chairman  of  the  meeting  may  adjourn  the  meeting  without 
a  motion  at  the  end  of  the  recitation  period. 

7.  No  member  shall  be  allowed  to  decline  an  office. 

8.  The  critic's  report  shall  be  in  writing. 

Other  standing  rules  may  deal  with  such  matters  as  the  follow- 
ing :  the  time  for  receiving  reports  of  officers  and  committees,  the 
regulations  for  vouchers  and  payment  of  bills,  rules  for  speaking, 
rules  for  attendance  and  tardiness,  and  any  rules  of  order  in  which 
the  society  deviates  from  the  authority  adopted  by  the  by-laws. 


302  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

IV.    THE   ORDER   OF  BUSINESS 

The  Usual  Plan 
the  usual  order  of  business 

1.  Minutes. 

2.  Reports :  officers  and  committees. 

3.  Old  business. 

4.  New  business. 

This  is  the  basic  program  for  the  meetings  of  all  organizations. 
The  student  should  make  this  information  his  own,  and  should 
note  that  the  other  forms  which  follow  preserve  the  same  order 
but  include  other  items.  On  pages  321-326  are  explained  the 
duties  of  the  officers  in  calling  the  meeting  to  order,  presenting 
the  minutes,  and  making  reports.  Committee  reports  are  treated 
on  page  327.  Old  business  includes  questions  brought  up  but  not 
voted  on  or  disposed  of  at  the  previous  meeting,  and  questions 
postponed  to  the  meeting  under  consideration.  New  business  con- 
sists of  principal  motions  proposed  at  the  present  meeting. 

An  Order  of  Business  for  a  Literary  Society 

SPECIAL  ORDER  OF  BUSINESS 

1.  Roll  call. 

2.  Minutes. 

3.  Critic's  report.^ 

4.  Reports  of  other  officers,  and  of  committees. 

5.  Old  business. 

6.  New  business. 

7.  Program. 


^b'- 


1  This  arrangement  provides  for  a  careful  review  of  each  program,  by 
the  critic,  at  the  folhnving  meeting.  Nevertheless,  there  are  advantages 
in  the  plan  of  reserving  two  or  three  minutes  just  before  adjournment, 
and  having  the  critic's  report  at  this  time,  directly  after  the  program 
which  is  to  be  criticized. 


THE  ORDER  OF  BUSINESS  303 

This  order  of  business  is  useful  when  the  parliamentar}^  law  is 
of  minimum  importance  and  the  society  wishes  to  give  most  of 
the  time  to  the  program  of  speeches,  lecture,  plays,  or  discussion. 
By  common  custom  the  business  of  the  society  is  transacted  as 
rapidly  as  possible,  so  that  the  speakers  will  not  be  kept  waiting. 
This  order,  minus  the  roll  call  and  the  critic's  report,  is  used  by 
city  clubs  which  meet  at  dinner  and  listen  to  speeches  afterward. 
Such  societies  usually  have  an  executive  committee  to  transact 
most  of  their  business,  and  when  a  large  amount  of  business 
is  planned  for  any  meeting,  such  as  an  election  of  officers,  the 
program  is  omitted. 

It  is  possible  to  use  the  above  order  for  school  classes,  the 
parliamentary  practice  being  cut  short  at  the  expiration  of  an 
agreed  time  limit. 

A  Suggested  Order  for  School  Classes 

ORDER  OF  BUSINESS  FOR  AN  ORAL  ENGLISH  CLASS  1 

1.  Choice  of  officers. 

2.  Roll  call. 

3.  Minutes. 

4.  Critic's  report. 

5.  Program. 

6.  Reports  of  committees. 

7.  Old  business. 

8.  New  business. 

The  officers  may  be  chosen  as  indicated  in  the  plan  proposed 
on  page  298.  During  the  program  the  chairman  may  keep  time, 
announcing  the  program  completed  when  about  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  is  left  for  parliamentary  practice.  As  has  been  indicated 
in  the  first  paragraph  of  page  294,  the  program  may  be  made  up 

1  The  teacher's  report,  whether  actually  in  the  posted  order  of 
business  or  not,  may  come  directly  after  the  program.  It  may  include 
general  criticisms,  proposals  for  future  work,  instructions,  and  the  list  of 
students  for  the  next  program. 


304  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

of  any  and  all  kinds  of  Oral  English  recitations.    It  may  be  used 
for  the  explanation  and  discussion  of  parliamentary  principles. 

Some  societies  have  an  order  of  business  called  "  Good  of 
the  Order,"  or  "  Good  of  the  Society,"  which  comes  at  the  very 
end  of  the  meeting,  just  before  adjournment.  This  consists  of 
informal  suggestions  for  the  improvement  of  the  organization. 


V.    PRECEDENCE  OF  QUESTIONS 

Classification  of  Motions.  Table  C,  Appendix  VI,  includes 
all  the  motions  commonly  used  in  business  meetings,  except 
the  motion  to  reconsider,  which  is  explained  on  page  330, 
The  motions  of  Table  C  are  classified  as  follows : 

1.  Privileged  Questions.  These  concern  the  welfare  and  pro- 
gram of  the  meeting,  and  do  not  relate  to  other  motions  before 
the  house.  Time  for  next  meeting,  adjournment,  recess,  question 
of  privilege,  and  orders  of  the  day  are  privileged  questions. 

2.  Incidental  Questions.  These  arise  out  of  other  motions. 
Appeal,  point  of  order,  objection,  reading  papers,  withdrawal 
of  a  motion,  and  suspension  of  a  rule  are  incidental  questions. 

3.  Subsidiary  Questions.  These  change,  dispose  of,  or  bring 
to  vote  some  motion  previously  made.  Lay  on  the  table,  previous 
question,  postpone  definitely,  refer,  amend,  and  postpone  indefi- 
nitely are  subsidiary  questions. 

4.  Principal  Questions.  These  introduce  business  before  the 
assembly.  Ordinary  motions  considered  in  old  and  new  business 
are  main  or  principal  questions. 

Illustrations  in  the  Use  of  the  Tables.  The  three  rules 
under  Table  B,  in  Appendix  VI,  will  govern  the  chairman 
and  the  members  in  using  the  various  motions.  When  we 
say  that  a  question  or  motion  has  precedence  or  priority 
over  another   motion,    we   mean  simply  that  the   question 


PRECEDENCE  OF  QUESTIONS  305 

which  has  precedence  must  be  settled  first.  Then  the  one 
of  lower  order  is  decided,  if  at  all,  only  after  the  vote  on 
the  higher  motion  has  been  taken.  The  combinations  are 
countless  in  number.  A  very  simple  one  is  given  in  the 
secretary's  minutes,  page  337.  The  following  is  an  illus- 
tration of  the  correct  use  of  six  of  the  motions  of  Table  B  : 

If  it  has  been  tnoved  and  seconded  to  purchase  an  automobile,  and 
if  no  vote  has  yet  been  taken,  somebody  may  move  to  refer  the  matter 
to  a  committee.  While  this  too  is  undecided,  the  motion  to  postpone 
the  whole  question  one  week  may  be  moved.  This,  in  turn,  may  be 
supplanted  by  the  motion  to  lay  the  whole  matter  on  the  table,  and 
this  last  motion  again  by  a  motion  for  adjournment.  The  chairman 
then  secures  a  vote  on  adjournment.  Let  us  suppose  that  adjournment 
is  voted  down,  that  lay  on  the  table  is  then  lost,  that  postpone  one 
week  is  also  lost,  that  previous  question  (previous  question  stands 
above  refer  in  the  table,  and  therefore  takes  precedence  over  it)  is  then 
moved  and  carried,  and  finally  that  refer  to  a  committee  is  carried. 
The  automobile  question  then  goes  to  the  committee,  and  is  not  further 
considered  until  the  committee  reports.  The  house  is  now  open  for 
further  new  business  —  for  a  principal  motion  on  another  subject. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  illustration  that  a  member  may 
at  any  time  propose  a  motion  of  higher  position  than  the 
one  at  that  time  pending  (before  the  house  and  about  to 
be  voted  upon),  and  that  the  chairman  must  endeavor  to 
secure  a  vote  first  on  the  highest  motion  of  those  pro- 
posed, and  proceed  downward  until  all  are  disposed  of  or 
until  the  meeting  adjourns.  Thus  the  members  may  go 
upivard  in  proposing  motions  in  Table  B  or  Table  C, 
while  the  chairman  proceeds  dozvnward  in  securing  votes 
on  the  pending  questions. 

The  motions  in  the  larger  table  obey  the  same  general 
rules  as  do  those  of  Table  B,  and  are  used  in  the  same 
manner.     Some  special  rules  and  exceptions  are   noted  in 


3o6  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

the  directions  for  Table  C,  and  in  the  directions  which  are 
to  follow. 

Brief  Directions  for  the  Use  of  Each  Motion.  We  shall 
now  repeat  the  motions  of  the  larger  table,  inserting  under 
each  the  necessary  information  for  its  use  in  a  business 
meeting.  The  student  should  recall  that  in  the  case  of  all 
motions  other  than  those  inclosed  in  quotation  marks  it  is 
necessary  for  the  mover  of  the  motion  to  rise,  address  the 
chairman,  and  be  recognized  before  he  may  speak  further. 
For  those  inclosed  in  quotation  marks,  no  recognition  is 
required. 


KEY 

D  = 

A  = 

=  debatable                NS  =  no  second  is  required 
=  amendable              Quotation  marks  ("  ")  =  in  order  when 

another  person  has  the  floor 

2/3  =  two-thirds  vote  necessary  to  carry 

A—  Time  for  Next  Meeting 

"  I  move  that  the  next  meeting  of  the  club  be  held  at 
TO  A.M.,  Wednesday,  May  13." 

"  I  move  that  when  this  meeting  shall  adjourn,  it  adjourn 
to  meet  again  at  10  a.m.,  Wednesday,  May  13." 

"  I  move  that  the  time  to  which  this  meeting  shall  ad- 
journ shall  be  fixed  at  ...  " 

This  motion  is  in  order  at  any  time  during  the  meeting.  It  does 
not  adjourn  the  meeting,  nor  decide  when  the  meeting  shall  adjourn  ; 
it  merely  determines  in  advance  when  the  next  meeting  of  the 
society  shall  take  place.  Its  principal  use  is  that  the  members 
may  all  know  when  to  assemble  again.  In  protracted  meetings  or 
sessions  of  conventions  and  the  like,  it  is  useful  in  preventing  an 


PRECEDENCE  OF  QUESTIONS  307 

adjournment  which  might  end  the  entire  session,  and  in  providing 
for  another  meeting  to  which  business  may  be  deferred. 

The  motion  to  determine  the  place  for  the  next  meeting  has  the 
same  rank  as  that  to  fix  the  time. 

Adjourn 

"  I  move  we  adjourn." 

"  I  move  that  the  meeting  do  now  adjourn." 

"  I  move  that  the  meeting  stand  adjourned." 

Note  that  the  motion  to  adjourn  cannot  interrupt  a  speaker, 
and  that  recognition  is  required. 

This  motion  is  entirely  unlike  the  motion,  "  I  move  that  we 
adjourn  at  1 1  p.m."  The  latter  motion  is  a  principal  motion  (see 
below),  and  cannot  be  moved  when  any  other  question  is  pending. 

If  the  motion  to  adjourn  is  carried,  the  chairman  at  once  de- 
clares that  the  motion  is  carried,  and  that  the  meeting  is  adjourned. 
Between  these  two  statements  there  should  be  opportunity  for  the 
call  of  a  division. 

A—  Recess 

"  I  move  that  a  recess  of  ten  minutes  be  declared." 
'"  I  move  that  the  society  take  a  recess  of  ten  minutes." 
"  I  move  a  recess  of  ten  minutes  or  less,  for  the  purpose 
of  signing  the  constitution." 

Amendments  to  the  motion  may  apply  only  to  the  length  of 
the  recess.  After  the  recess,  business  proceeds  as  if  there  had 
been  no  interruption. 

D—  A—  "  Question  of  Privilege  " 

(treated  as  a  main  motion) 

"  Mr.  Chairman,  I  rise  to  a  question  of  privilege," 
'"  I  rise  to  a  question  of  privilege,  Mr.  Chairman." 
"  A  question  of  privilege,  Mr.  Chairman." 


3o8  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

The  mere  address  "  Mr.  Chairman  "  may  fail  of  recognition, 
because  it  contains  no  hint  that  the  member  has  a  right  to  inter- 
rupt the  speaker.  If,  however,  the  chairman  hears  the  words, 
"  question  of  privilege,"  he  is  forced  to  interrupt  the  speaker  if 
somebody  happens  to  be  engaged  in  debate  on  a  pending  question, 
and  to  ask  the  one  who  has  risen  to  state  his  question.  Questions, 
requests  for  information,  parliamentary  inquiries,  and  motions  for 
the  comfort  or  rights  of  members  are  considered  of  such  great 
importance  that  they  must  be  settled  before  any  other  business 
can  be  considered,  except  the  three  motions  above. 

The  chairman  responds,  "  State  your  question  of  privilege,"  and 
the  member  then  briefly  states  his  request  or  motion.  If  the  request 
is  a  matter  easily  and  rightly  granted,  the  chairman  should  grant  it 
at  once,  or  should  put  it  to  a  vote  if  he  thinks  best.  If  the  chair- 
man believes  that  the  request  is  not  a  proper  question  of  privilege, 
he  so  rules  and  the  member  may  appeal  (see  below).  If  the  mem- 
bers or  the  chairman  decide  that  the  request  is  a  proper  question 
of  privilege,  but  that  a  vote  is  necessary  before  it  can  be  granted, 
the  question  goes  before  the  house.  When  it  thus  becomes  the 
question  before  the  house,  it  becomes  for  the  time  being  like  a 
main  motion,  and  as  such  may  be  amended,  referred,  postponed, 
tabled,  etc.,  like  any  other  main  motion.  When  disposed  of,  the 
business  goes  back  to  that  which  was  pending  before  the  question 
of  privilege  was  raised. 

Following  are  a  few  illustrations  of  proper  questions  of  privilege  : 
to  have  the  question  before  the  house  stated ;  to  suppress  disturb- 
ances in  the  meeting ;  to  stop  noises  outside ;  to  move  the  meeting 
to  another  room ;  to  improve  ventilation ;  to  ask  for  more  chairs. 
A  question  relating  to  a  few  of  the  members  of  a  society  must 
give  way  to  one  involving  the  rights  of  all  the  members. 

Note  that  this  is  the  first  of  the  five  motions  inclosed  in  quota- 
tion marks.  Any  of  these  must  be  recognized  at  once  by  the 
chairman,  even  if  another  member  is  talking. 


PRECEDENCE  OF  QUESTIONS  309 

"  Orders  of  the  Day  "  NS 

"  Mr.  Chairman,  I  call  for  the  orders  of  the  day." 
"  I  call  for  the  orders  of  the  day,  Mr.  Chairman." 
The  chairman  states  the  call :  "  Shall  the  meeting  now 
proceed  to  the  orders  of  the  day .''  " 

The  purpose  of  this  motion  is  to  call  for  the  regular  program 
for  the  meeting  or  for  the  special  business  which  has  been  planned  ; 
its  aim  is  to  set  aside  the  matters  which  bid  fair  to  delay  the  more 
important  proceedings  and  to  call  up  .these  proceedings  at  once. 
The  motion  is  in  order  as  soon  as  the  meeting  begins,  and  it  may 
interrupt  the  usual  order  of  business.  Frequently  the  members 
have  voted  at  a  previous  meeting  to  consider  a  certain  matter  at 
a  designated  time  (see  Suspension  of  Rules,  below).  In  this  case 
the  call  is  in  order  when  the  designated  time  has  arrived. 

If  the  call  for  the  order  of  the  day  is  voted  down,  the  inter- 
rupted business  proceeds ;  the  call  may  be  renewed,  however, 
when  any  business  has  been  transacted.  If  the  call  is  carried,  the 
matters  designated  come  up  for  consideration ;  after  which  the 
business  which  was  interrupted  proceeds. 

"Appeal" 

"  I  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chair," 
The  chairman  puts  the  question  :  ""  Shall  the  ruling  of  the 
chair  stand  as  the  decision  of  the  society }    Those  in  favor 
say,  'Aye'  .  .  .  ,"  etc.    Or,  "Those  who  sustain  the  chair 
say,  *  Aye  '...,"  etc. 

An  appeal  comes  before  the  house  when  the  chairman  has  made 
a  ruling  with  which  a  member  takes  issue,  as,  for  example,  when 
the  chairman  has  ruled  against  a  ]ooint  of  order  (see  below).  Any 
member  who  is  not  satisfied  with  the  chairman's  interpretation  of 
the  rules  may  appeal  to  the  society,  and  the  matter  is  then  decided 


3IO  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

by  a  majority  vote.  Before  the  vote  brief  reasons  may  be  stated 
by  the  member  and  by  the  chairman,  and,  in  certain  rare  cases, 
unlikely  to  occur  outside  a  legal  organization,  others  may  debate 
the  appeal. 

A  motion  to  lay  the  appeal  on  the  table  is  in  order,  and  if  it  is 
carried  the  chairman's  ruling  stands. 

"Point  of  Order"  NS 

"  I  rise  to  a  point  of  order." 

The  chairman  responds  :  "  State  your  point  of  order." 

The  member :  "  My  point  of  order  is  that  the  constitu- 
tion is  being  violated  in  that  .  .  .  ,"  etc. 

The  chairman  :  "Your  point  of  order  is  well  taken  "  (or, 
"  not  well  taken  "). 

If  the  chairman  holds  that  the  point  of  order  is  well  taken 
he  proceeds  at  once  to  correct  the  error.  In  case  he  does  not  so 
agree,  the  one  who  raised  the  point,  or  any  other  member,  may 
appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chair. 

Points  of  order  may  be  raised  whenever  a  member  thinks  that 
a  rule  is  being  broken,  an  unfairness  being  done,  or  a  wrong  pro- 
cedure being  followed.  These  are  some  examples :  wrong  motion 
stated,  motion  stated  wrongly,  speaker  off  the  subject,  personal 
remarks  being  made,  wrong  person  recognized,  order  of  business 
not  being  followed,  undebatable  question  being  debated,  rules  of 
precedence  violated,  by-laws  disregarded. 

It  should  be  specially  noted  that  while  the  point  of  order  and 
appeal  may  be  superseded  by  the  questions  above  them  in  the 
table,  yet  points  of  order  and  appeals  may  be  raised  in  connection 
with  any  of  these  higher  motions,  and  in  such  cases  supersede 
these  higher  questions  themselves. 


PRECEDENCE  OF  QUESTIONS  31 1 

"  Objection  to  Consideration  "  NS—  2/3 

"  Mr.  Chairman,  I  object  to  the  consideration  of  this 
question." 

The  chairman  responds :  "  Those  who  sustain  the  objec- 
tion say,  'Aye,'  "  etc. 

An  objection  is  in  order  only  when  it  is  raised  before  the  ques- 
tion has  been  debated,  and  it  can  apply  to  principal  questions  only. 
The  one  who  objects  may  briefly  state  his  reason.  A  two-to-one 
vote  is  needed  to  rule  the  motion  out,  as  otherwise  a  bare  majority 
might  prevent  free  speech. 

Objections  may  be  raised  on  the  grounds,  among  others,  that 
the  question  proposed  is  improper  for  the  assembly  to  vote  upon 
in  that  it  involves  personal,  religious,  or  political  issues ;  or  that 
it  has  no  value  to  the  meeting;  or  that  it  is  not  related  to  the 
purposes  of  the  organization. 

If  the  objection  is  sustained,  the  motion  is  ruled  out,  without 
debate  or  vote. 

Reading  Papers 

'"  I  move  that  I  be  allowed  to  read  this  article." 

"  I  move  that  the  member  be  allowed  to  read  the  article 

in  question." 

"  I    move   that  the   by-law   in   question   be   read    by  the 

secretary." 

"  I  move  that  the  visitor  be  asked  to  address  us." 

"  I  move  that  the  gentleman  be  allowed  ten  minutes  to 

address  the  meeting." 

If  a  member  wishes  to  read  or  have  read  any  written  or  printed 
matter  bearing  on  the  question  in  hand,  to  have  a  section  of  the 
rules  read,  or  to  have  a  non-member  address  the  meeting,  he 
moves  that  permission  be  given  for  such  act. 


312  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

Withdrawal  of  a  Motion 

"  I  move  that  the  motion  be  withdrawn." 
"  I  move  that  the  maker  of  the  motion  be  allowed  to 
withdraw  it." 

Before  a  motion  has  been  stated  by  the  chairman,  either  the 
maker  or  the  seconder  may  withdraw  his  indorsement.  After  it 
has  been  stated,  however,  it  becomes  the  property  of  the  meeting, 
and  cannot  be  withdrawn  by  the  maker  of  the  motion  if  any 
member  objects.  In  such  a  case  the  mover  or  somebody  else 
may  move  that  the  motion  be  withdrawn. 

Suspension  of  Rules  2/3 

"  I  move  that  the  rules  be  suspended  in  order  to  hear 
the  report  of  the  committee." 

Neither  constitution  nor  by-laws  may  be  suspended.^  Rules  of 
order  and  standing  rules  may  be  set  aside  temporarily  when  they 
stand  in  the  way  of  a  desired  action.  Suppose,  as  in  the  above 
quotation,  the  chairman  of  a  committee  has  entered  the  meeting 
late,  and  the  members  wish  to  turn  back  the  order  of  business  to 
reports  of  committees  in  order  to  hear  his  report.  In  such  a  case 
the  society  may  decide  by  a  two-to-one  vote  to  suspend  the  rules. 
The  motion  must  state  the  purpose  of  the  proposed  suspension. 

1  Even  legal  organizations  sometimes  find  it  necessary  to  suspend 
specific  sections  of  their  constitutions.  For  example,  a  state  legislature 
may,  in  case  of  grave  public  need,  waive  constitutional  formalities  in  ref- 
erence to  voting  appropriations.  Again,  a  governor  may  declare  martial 
law.  Such  a  suspension  of  the  fundamental  law,  however,  is  legal  only 
when  provided  for  by  a  specific  article  of  the  constitution  itself.  School 
societies  will  probably  never  have  need  of  such  a  provision  in  their 
constitutions. 

If  a  society  deliberately  ignores  or  violates  its  constitution,  it  thereby, 
in  effect,  temporarily  suspends  its  own  existence  as  a  society.  Such  a 
proceeding  is  possible,  but  indiscreet.  It  opens  the  way  for  indiscriminate 
irregularities. 


PRECEDENCE  OF  QUESTIONS  313 

Other  illustrations  will  make  the  object  of  this  motion  clear:  to 
allow  a  member  to  continue  speaking  when  his  time  has  expired  •, 
to  allow  a  member  to  speak  for  a  third  time  upon  the  question  ;  to 
abandon  the  regular  program ;  to  set  aside  for  a  special  occasion 
the  restrictive  rules  of  the  regular  meetings. 

To  set  a  particular  topic  as  a  special  order  for  a  future  time  sus- 
pends the  rules  in  that  it  changes  the  regular  order  of  business  for 
that  future  meeting ;  it  therefore  has  the  same  rank  as  suspension 
of  the  rules  and  requires  a  two-thirds  vote. 

Lay  on  the  Table 

"'  I  move  the  matter  be  laid  on  the  table." 
"  I  move  that  the  whole  question  be  laid  on  the  table." 
"  I   move  the   motion   (amendment,  appeal,    question   of 
privilege)  be  laid  on  the  table." 

"  I  move  that  the  motion  be  tabled." 

This  motion  was  originally  devised  to  put  a  motion  aside  tem- 
porarily, but  in  recent  times  it  is  often  used  to  rid  the  meeting 
permanently  of  a  motion.  If  the  latter  is  the  intent,  however,  the 
maker  of  the  main  motion  should  have  the  right  to  speak  briefly 
in  favor  of  his  motion  before  lay  on  the  table  is  put  to  vote. 

A  motion  laid  upon  the  table  is  disposed  of  until  it  is  renewed 
(see  p.  zzi)^  o^  ^"^^^  ^  motion  is  made  to  take  from  the  table  the 
motion  in  question.  Take  from  the  table  has  the  same  character- 
istics and  place  in  Table  C  as  lay  on  the  table. 

When  a  motion  is  tabled,  all  other  motions  attached  to  it  — 
such  as  amend,  postpone,  refer,  and  previous  question  —  are  car- 
ried to  the  table  with  it.  The  motion  to  take  from  the  table,  if 
carried,  brings  these  back  before  the  house  in  the  exact  condition 
they  were  in  at  the  time  the  motion  was  tabled. 

Technically,  an  amendment  to  a  motion  may  be  laid  on  the 
table,  but  as  this  carries  the  motion  to  the  table  with  the  amend- 
ment, the  effect  is  the  same  as  tabling  the  motion  itself. 


314  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

There  is  no  such  motion  as  "  to  lay  the  matter  on  the  table  till 
next  meeting."  This  should  be  either  '"  to  lay  the  matter  on  the 
table,"  or  "  to  postpone  the  matter  till  next  meeting." 


Previous  Question  =  Stop  Debate  2/3 

"  I  move  the  previous  question." 

"  I  move  debate  be  stopped." 

"  I  move  we  proceed  to  the  vote." 

"  I  move  the  previous  question  on  the  motion  to  postpone." 

"  I  move  we  stop  debate  on  the  amendment." 

This  motion  does  not  refer  to  any  previously  mentioned  ques- 
tion, as  its  name  would  seem  to  indicate ;  it  refers  only  to  the 
question  or  questions  now  pending,  and  it  seeks  to  cut  off  debate 
and  bring  to  vote  one  or  more  motions.  If  the  motion  for  the  pre- 
vious question  specifies  the  motion  concerned,  and  is  carried,  then 
the  debate  on  only  that  motion  is  closed.  If,  however,  the  motion 
for  closing  debate  is  unrestricted,  it  is  usual  to  proceed  to  vote  on 
all  the  pending  questions,  without  further  debate. 

It  should  be  noted  that  at  any  time  in  the  process  of  voting, 
a  motion  of  higher  precedence  may  intervene. 

The  motion  for  the  previous  question  should  not  be  confused 
with  the  expression,  "  I  call  for  the  question,"  spoken  by  a  mem- 
ber from  his  seat.  This  call  indicates  merely  that  one  or  more  of 
the  members  is  ready  and  anxious  to  vote ;  it  is  a  signal  to  the 
chairman,  if  no  one  has  the  floor,  to  ask,  "Are  you  ready  for  the 
question  ? "  and  to  take  the  vote  if  everybody  is  ready. 

The  motion  to  limit  each  speech  to  a  certain  tirne,  or  to  limit 
the  debate  as  a  whole,  has  the  same  precedence  as  the  previous 
question. 

The  motion  for  the  previous  question  may  be  applied  to  any 
debatable  question.  If  carried,  the  debatable  question  is  simply 
changed  into  the  undebatable  class. 


PRECEDENCE  OF  QUESTIONS  315 

D—  A—  Postpone  to  a  Definite  Time 

"  I  move  that  this  question  be  postponed  for  one  week." 
'"  I  move  to  postpone  the  motion  till  next  meeting." 

This  motion  is  useful  when  more  time  is  needed.  Debate  on 
the  advantage  of  delay  is  in  order,  and  the  time  of  postponement 
may  be  amended.  When  the  time  of  postponement  has  elapsed, 
the  matter  again  appears,  under  old  business,  in  exactly  the  form 
it  was  left.  It  may,  however,  be  called  up  as  the  order  of  the  day 
for  the  meeting  to  which  it  was  postponed ;  or  it  may,  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote,  be  taken  up  at  any  intervening  meeting. 

Postponement  may  be  applied  to  principal  motions  only ;  not 
to  the  motion  to  amend  or  refer. 

D—  A—  Refer  to  a  Committee 

"  I  move  that  this  matter  be  referred  to  a  committee." 

"  I  move  that  the  motion  be  referred  to  the  finance 
committee." 

"  I  move  that  the  question  of  a  banquet  be  referred  to  a 
committee  of  three,  to  be  appointed  by  the  chair,  and  to 
report  at  the  next  meeting," 

"'  I  move  that  the  motion  to  join  the  town  of  Blank  in 
an  Independence  Day  celebration  be  referred  to  an  elected 
committee  of  three  persons,  with  power  to  act." 

This  motion  is  useful  when  more  investigation  is  needed,  or 
when  a  matter  proposed  in  a  motion  can  best  be  handled  by  a 
smaller  body.  The  motion  must  not  be  confused  with  the  main 
motion  to  appoint  a  committee,  which  will  be  considered  below ; 
the  present  motion  aims  to  give  to  a  committee  a  main  motion 
which  has  already  been  placed  before  the  house. 

Debate  on  the  motion  may  concern  the  advantage  of  referring 
the  motion,  and  the  pros  and  cons  of  the  main  motion  itself,  so 


3i6  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

that  the  committee,  if  one  is  appointed,  may  be  informed  as  to  the 
views  and  wishes  of  the  society.  By  amendments  the  size  of  the 
committee,  the  manner  of  its  selection,  and  the  time  for  its  report 
may  be  determined  or  changed.  If  no  specification  is  made,  it  is 
usually  understood  that  a  committee  of  three  will  be  appointed  by 
the  president  or  chairman,  and  that  the  committee  will  report 
as  soon  as  convenient. 

Committee  reports  and  how  they  are  handled  are  discussed 
on  page  327. 

D—  A—  Amend 

Let  us  assume  as  the  main  motion  :  "  White  Street  shall 
be  paved  and  sidewalked,  from  First  Street  to  Twentieth 
Street." 

1.  "I  move  to  amend  the  motion  by  striking  out  the 
word  '  Twentieth  '  and  inserting  in  its  place  *  Twelfth.'  " 

2.  "I  move  to  amend  the  motion  by  substituting  for  it 
the  following :  '  The  property  owners  on  White  Street  shall 
be  asked  to  be  present  at  a  hearing  on  the  question  of  the 
improvement  of  that  street.'  " 

3.  "I  move  to  amend  by  dividing  the  question  into  two 
questions  :  paving  and  sidewalking." 

It  will  be  seen  that  amending  a  motion  may  change  its  wording, 
or  substitute  a  different  motion  in  its  place,  or  divide  it  into  two 
distinct  motions. 

I .  The  usual  purpose  of  an  amendment  is  to  change  the  word- 
ing of  the  motion  so  that  it  will  be  more  nearly  acceptable.  If  an 
amendment  which  the  maker  of  the  original  motion  believes  in  is 
proposed,  he  and  the  person  who  seconds  it  can  accept  it,  and, 
if  there  is  no  objection,  it  is  then  incorporated  into  the  motion 
itself  without  the  need  of  a  vote.  Otherwise  the  proposed  change 
of  wording  is  put  to  vote.  These  changes  may  include  adding, 
inserting,  striking  out,  or  striking  out  and  inserting.    While  the 


PRECEDENCE  OF  QUESTIONS  31/ 

proposed  amendment  is  before  the  house,  the  debate  must  be 
confined  to  the  advantage  of  the  change  in  wording;  the  main 
motion  itself  cannot  be  debated.  If  the  proposed  change  is  carried, 
the  chairman  then  reads  the  main  motion  as  it  has  been  changed, 
and  the  debate  proceeds  on  this  main  motion  as  amended,  which 
must  finally  be  voted  on  in  order  to  carry-  it.  Carr^'ing  an  amend- 
ment never  carries  the  motion  it  amends. 

\\'hile  an  amendment  is  pending,  it  in  turn  may  be  amended. 
Be  sure,  however,  that  the  proposed  new  amendment  applies 
directly  to  the  first  amendment  and  not  to  the  main  motion  itself, 
for  of  course  it  would  not  be  possible  to  have  two  amendments  to 
a  motion  pending  at  the  same  time,  any  more  than  there  could  be 
two  main  motions  before  the  house  at  once.  The  process  of  amend- 
ing an  amendment  is  the  same  as  that  of  amending  a  motion  as 
explained  above. 

An  example  will  make  the  whole  process  clear.  It  is  moved 
and  seconded,  and  stated  by  the  chair,  "  that  a  new  librar}^  build- 
ing, at  a  cost  of  not  more  than  $500,000,  be  erected  by  the  city  at 
the  corner  of  High  and  Green  streets."  During  the  debate  an 
amendment  is  moved,  seconded,  and  stated  that  the  words,  "  at 
the  corner  of  High  and  Green  streets,"  be  struck  out  and 
"  in  Liberty  Square  "  be  inserted.  Then  comes  discussion  about 
the  question  of  location.  At  this  point  if  somebody  should  propose 
to  amend  by  changing  $500,000  to  $750,000,  his  amendment  would 
be  declared  out  of  order.  But  if  a  member  wishes  to  add  to  the 
amendment  the  words,  "  facing  Hill  Street,"  it  would  be  in  order 
for  him  to  "  move  to  amend  the  amendment "  to  that  effect. 
Debate  now  occurs  on  the  way  the  building  shall  face  if  put  in 
Liberty  Square.  Let  us  say  the  amendment  to  the  amendment 
is  carried.  The  amendment  as  amended  now  reads,  "  to  strike  out 
'  at  the  comer  of  High  and  Green  streets,'  and  insert  '  in  Liberty 
Square,  facing  Hill  Street.' "  After  further  debate,  suppose  this 
amendment  to  the  motion  is  carried.  This  means  simply  that  if 
the  librar)'  is  built,  its  location  will  be  as  voted.  The  main  motion, 
as  amended,  now  reads,  "  that  a  new  library  building,  at  a  cost  of 


3i8  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

not  more  than  $500,000,  be  erected  by  the  city  in  Liberty  Square, 
facing  Hill  Street,"  and  this  motion  is  of  course  now  open  for 
debate.  It  is  also  open  for  further  amendment  just  as  if  it  had 
been  stated  this  way  in  the  beginning.  Nothing  conclusive  is 
decided  until  the  final  vote  on  the  main  motion. 
This  process  may  be  clearly  shown  as  follows : 

1.  Proposed  inotion  :  A  new  library  building,  to  cost  not  more  than 

$500,000,  shall  be  erected  by  the  city  at  the  corner  of  High 
and  Green  streets. 

Proposed  atnendment :  Strike  out  the  words,  "  at  the  corner 
of  High  and  Green  streets,"  and  insert  "in  Liberty  Square." 
Proposed  amendment   to  the  amendment :    Add  the 
words,  "  facing  Hill  Street." 

If  the  proposed  amendment  to  the  amendment  is  carried,  we 
have  pending  the  following  : 

2.  Proposed  motion  :  A  new  library  building,  to  cost  not  more  than 

$500,000,  shall  be  erected  by  the  city  at  the  corner  of  High 
and  Green  streets. 

P7'oposed  atnendment  as  amended :    Strike  out  the  words, 

"  at  the  corner  of  High  and  Green  streets,"  and  insert 

"  in  Liberty  Square,  facing  Hill  Street." 

If  the  amendment  as  amended  is  carried,  we  have  pending : 

3.  Proposed  motion,  as  amended :    A  new  library  building,  to  cost 

not  more  than  $500,000,  shall  be  erected  by  the  city  in  Liberty 
Square,  facing  Hill  Street. 

2.  The  substitute  motion,  another  form  of  amendment,  proposes 
to  strike  out  all  the  words  of  a  motion  or  amendment,  and  to  put 
in  their  place  a  new  motion  to  cover  the  same  need.  For  example, 
"  I  move  to  amend  the  motion  by  substituting  for  it  the  following : 
'  that  the  city  enter  into  a  ten-year  lease,  for  library  purposes,  of 
the  second,  third,  and  fourth  floors  of  the  First  National  Bank 
Building.'  "  The  process  is  the  same  as  explained  above ;  the  vote 
on  the  amendment  can  only  change  the  wording  of  the  question 
before  the  house. 


PRECEDENCE  OF  QUESTIONS  319 

3.  Amending  to  divide  the  question  cuts  a  motion  which  covers 
two  topics  into  two  separate  main  motions.  For  example,  in  the 
case  of  the  question,  "  I  move  that  the  Secretary  of  State  enter 
into  negotiations  for  treaties  with  Cuba  and  Panama,"  if  the 
amendment  to  divide  is  carried,  the  first  main  motion  would  be, 
"that  the  Secretar)^  of  State  enter  into  negotiations  for  a  treaty 
with  Cuba  " ;  and  after  this  question  is  disposed  of,  the  next  main 
motion  would  be,  "  that  the  Secretary  of  State  enter  into  negotia- 
tions for  a  treaty  with  Panama." 

4.  Blanks  may  be  left  by  the  mover  of  any  motion :  "  I  move 
that  we  appropriate  blank  dollars  for  the  relief  of  the  war  suf- 
ferers." Members  nominate  various  sums  and  they  are  all  voted 
upon,  arranged  with  the  smallest  first,  until  one  gets  a  majority.  If 
the  blank  concerns  a  period  of  time,  the  longest  time  is  arranged 
to  have  first  vote. 

5.  Bear  in  mind  that  anywhere  in  the  above  processes,  any 
motion  of  higher  precedence  —  above  '  Amend  '  in  Table  C  — 
may  be  moved,  and  may  temporarily  or  permanently  set  aside 
the  whole  question. 

D—  Postpone  Indefinitely 

"  I  move  that  the  motion  be  postponed  indefinitely." 
"  I  move  that  the  matter  be  postponed." 

This  motion  is  bracketed  with  '  Amend  '  in  Table  C  because  each 
motion  has  the  same  precedence :  neither  may  supplant  the  other. 

When  the  motion  to  postpone  indefinitely  is  before  the  house, 
debate  may  concern  itself  with  both  the  question  of  postponement 
and  the  main  question  itself.  If  the  motion  to  postpone  indefinitely 
is  carried,  it  usually  disposes  permanently  of  the  motion  to  which 
it  is  applied. 


320  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

D—  A—  Principal  Motion 

"  I  move  that  this  society  hold  a  debate." 

"  I  move  that  the  city  build  a  swimming  pool." 

"  I  move  that  this  society  adopt  the  following  resolution  : 

'  Resolved,  that  foreign  immigration  should  be  restricted.'  " 
"  I  move  to  amend  the  constitution  as  follows  :  .  .  ." 
"  I  move  that  this  society  rescind  its  action  in  voting  to 

have  a  banquet." 

The  ordinary  motions  which  introduce  topics  for  consideration 
are  called  principal  motions.  Usually  they  concern  new  proposals 
and  are  called  7nain  motions.  They  also  include  motions  to  take 
back  former  acts  (revoke,  repeal,  rescind),  and  motions  to  cancel 
(expunge)  objectionable  statements  from  the  minutes. 

The  following,  among  others,  are  treated  as  main  motions :  an 
amendment  to  the  constitution,  by-laws,  or  rules ;  a  motion  to 
appoint  a  committee  to  carry  out  a  stated  action  or  to  investigate 
a  stated  matter ;  a  motion  to  discharge  a  committee  or  to  accept 
or  reject  a  committee's  report ;  a  motion  to  adjourn  at  a  specified 
time  ;  a  question  of  privilege. 

The  main  or  principal  motion  is  subject  to  the  application  of 
any  of  the  other  motions  in  Table  C,  and  cannot  be  finally  voted 
until  all  other  pending  questions  are  settled. 

Pages  330-333  deal  with  miscellaneous  motions  and 
special  processes.  The  niotioti  to  reconsider  will  be  found 
there. 


RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES  321 

VI.    RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES  OF  MEMBERS  AND  OF 

OFFICERS 

The  Introduction  of  Business 

1.  The  member  who  desires  to  introduce  a  motion  rises  and 
addresses  the  chairman.  "  Mr.  Chairman  "  or  "  Madam  Chairman  " 
should  be  the  address,  unless  the  person  in  the  chair  holds  the 
office  of  president  or  has  some  other  executive  title,  in  which  case 
that  title  may  be  used. 

2.  The  chairman  responds  with  the  name  of  the  speaker. 

3.  The  member  states  his  motion,  and  resumes  his  seat. 

4.  The  chairman  calls  for  a  second ;  a  fair  chance  for  a  second 
should  be  given  ever)'  motion. 

5.  If  no  second  is  offered,  the  chairman  announces :  "  The 
motion  is  lost  for  want  of  a  second."  Even  then  a  second  may 
be  offered. 

6.  If  a  second  is  made,  the  chairman  states  the  motion  and 
calls  for  debate :  "  It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that,  etc. 
Are  there  any  remarks  on  the  motion?"   (See  p.  335.) 

7.  One  who  seconds  a  motion  or  calls  for  a  division  need  not 
rise  or  ask  for  recognition. 

8.  One  who  moves  any  of  the  following  need  not  wait  for 
recognition ;  it  must  be  given,  even  if  the  motion  interrupts 
another  speaker  (note  the  quotation  marks  around  these  motions, 
in  section  Y,  above)  : 

a.  Question  of  privilege. 

i.  Call  for  the  orders  of  the  day. 

c.  Appeal. 

d.  Point  of  order. 

e.  Objection  to  the  consideration  of  a  question. 
/.  Notice  of  a  reconsideration. 

9.  At  the  request  of  the  chairman,  the  maker  of  a  motion  or 
an  amendment  must  hand  the  text  of  the  motion  or  amendment 
to  the  secretary  in  writing. 


322  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

The  Rules  of  Debate 

1.  If  two  or  more  persons  ask  for  recognition  at  the  same 
time,  preference  should  be  given  in  the  following  order: 

a.  The  maker  of  the  motion. 

b.  One  who  has  not  spoken  on  the  motion. 

c.  One  who  seldom  speaks. 

d.  One  opposed  to  the  last  speaker. 

e.  In  other  cases,  the  one  who  addresses  the  chair  first. 

2.  Recognition  should  not  be  given  to  one  who  remains  stand- 
ing while  another  is  speaking,  or  who  rises  before  the  speaker  has 
finished,  or  who  approaches  the  chairman,  or  who  otherwise  disturbs 
the  meeting. 

3.  A  speaker  must  restrict  his  remarks  to  the  question  before 
the  house ;  he  must  not  discuss  personalities  or  motives. 

4.  In  referring  to  an  officer  or  member  the  speaker  should 
avoid  using  his  name. 

5.  A  member  may  speak  only  twice  on  any  motion,  not  longer 
than  ten  minutes  each  time. 

6.  The  speaker  is  entitled  to  a  fair  hearing. 

7.  All  parliamentary  law  is  based  on  equality  of  members,  and 
on  the  principles  of  courtesy  and  gentlemanly  behavior. 

The  Chairman 

Whoever  is  in  charge  of  the  meeting  is  the  chairman. 
The  next  paragraph  deals  with  suggestions  for  a  president. 
See  the  forms  on  page  335. 

1.  See  that  all  is  in  readiness  for  the  meeting,  and  call  it  to 
order  at  the  appointed  time :  "  The  meeting  will  now  come  to  order." 

2.  Have  at  hand  for  reference  :  the  constitution,  by-laws,  rules 
of  order,  standing  rules,  and  the  program  for  the  meeting. 

3.  Know  parliamentary  law ;  know  also  how  to  avoid  compli- 
cations ;  any  short  cut  is  possible  by  common  consent. 


RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES  323 

4.  Stand  when  calling  for  a  second,  stating  a  question,  taking 
a  vote,  announcing  a  vote,  and  answering  questions.  Remain 
seated  during  debate. 

5.  Talk  loud  enough  for  every  word  to  be  heard. 

6.  Be  decisive,  and  do  not  mind  being  overruled. 

7.  Keep  the  question  clearly  before  the  assembly  until  it  is 
finally  disposed  of.  After  each  vote  announce  the  next  question 
pending,  and  restate  the  motion  immediately  before  the  vote  is  taken. 

8.  If  while  chairman  you  wish  to  discuss  a  question,  yield  the 
chair  temporarily  to  another  member.  Never  leave  the  chair  for 
any  other  purpose. 

9.  Request  the  secretary  or  another  member  to  state  and  put 
a  motion  which  refers  to  the  chairman. 

10.  As  chairman  you  may  vote  with  the  other  members  when 
the  vote  is  by  ballot  or  by  roll  call.  You  may  vote  after  the  others 
in  an  Aye  and  No  vote  or  in  a  division,  provided  your  vote  will 
change  the  result  (carry  the  motion  by  breaking  a  tie,  or  defeat  it 
by  creating  a  tie). 

11.  Adjourn  a  meeting  you  cannot  control. 

12.  Be  absolutely  fair  and  impartial.  If  a  question  divides  the 
meeting  into  two  sides,  do  not  favor  either. 

The  President 

1.  Study  the  suggestions  for  the  chairman,  above. 

2.  Study  the  constitution,  by-laws,  and  rules,  and  see  that  they 
are  enforced. 

3.  When  appointing  a  committee,  select  persons  who  are  inter- 
ested, who  will  work,  and  who  represent  various  points  of  view. 
The  maker  of  the  motion  to  refer  should  usually  be  appointed 
chairman  of  the  committee. 

4.  Keep  posted  on  the  work  of  other  officers,  and  of  committees, 
and  help  them  when  possible. 

5.  Represent  the  society  to  the  outside  world :  attend  to  the 
affairs  of  the  society  between  meetings,  and  report  such  trans- 
actions at  the  following  meeting. 


324  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

6.  Plan  the  meetings  : 

a.  See  that  notices  are  sent  out  in  good  time. 

b.  Make  reports,  with  suggestions  for  action. 

c.  Keep  a  memorandum  of  topics  for  business. 

7.  Carry  out  the  good  suggestions  of  officers,  committees,  and 
members. 

8.  Be  a  leader  as  well  as  a  servant. 

The  Vice  President 

1.  Be  ready  to  fill  the  president's  place. 

2.  Help  the  president  and  other  officers,  particularly  in  regard 
to  arrangements  for  the  meetings  and  planning  the  programs. 

3.  Make  the  office  of  vice  president  amount  to  something. 

The  Secretary 

1.  In  the  absence  of  the  chairman,  president,  and  vice  president, 
call  the  meeting  to  order  and  hold  an  election  for  chairman  pro  tem. 

2.  Notify  members  about  special  meetings,  appointment  on 
committees,  etc. 

3.  Call  the  roll  when  necessary,  and  keep  a  record  of  the 
attendance  (see  Roll  Call,  p.  338). 

4.  If  necessary,  keep  a  record  of  the  recitations  in  the  class. 

5.  Be  ready  to  read  aloud  all  communications,  reports,  laws, 
etc.  whenever  required. 

6.  Assist  the  chairman  in  counting  the  vote  in  divisions. 

7.  Report  to  the  society  in  regard  to  all  correspondence  and 
other  activities  of  your  office. 

8.  Be  ready  to  tell  the  chairman  about  postponed  and  unfinished 

business. 

9.  Keep  a  memorandum  of  the  exact  wording  of  all  motions 
proposed.    Make  the  notes  so  clear  that  the  chairman  can  refer 

to  them. 

10.  Know  what  is   the  question  before  the  meeting  at  any 

moment,  and  what  comes  next. 


RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES  325 

11.  Write  the  minutes  (see  the  forms  on  page  336) 

a.  Include  name  of  organization,  place,  date,  time,  and  name  of 
chairman. 

b.  Make  a  separate  paragraph  for  each  order  of  business,  and  for 
each  general  subject  considered  under  the  old  and  new  business. 

c.  Include  a  list  of  those  who  took  part  in  the  program. 

d.  Sign  the  minutes ;  when  reading  the  minutes  read  the  signature. 

e.  If  they  are  corrected,  make  the  necessary  changes  at  once. 
When  they  are  approved,  indorse  them  "  Approved,"  with  the  date 
and  your  initials. 

12.  If  the  constitution,  by-laws,  or  rules  are  amended,  or  if 
additions  are  made,  see  that  the  proper  changes  are  made  in  the 
original  copies. 

13.  Keep  carefully  all  the  records  of  the  organization:  minutes, 
constitution,  laws,  reports,  communications. 

14.  The  secretary  is  free  to  take  part  in  the  meeting,  just  the 
same  as  any  other  member. 

The  Critic 

Below  are  some  of  the  things  in  a  meeting  that  a  critic 
may  watch  and  report  upon.  He  must  not  fail  to  commend 
the  good  points. 

1.  The  president:  his  manner  of  presiding  and  his  ability. 

2.  The  minutes  and  other  work  of  the  secretary. 

3.  The  critic's  report. 

4.  The  program  :  members  taking  part,  with  criticisms  on  :  look- 
ing at  the  audience ;  opening  sentence ;  announcement  of  topic ; 
arrangement  of  talk  ;  use  of  hands  ;  voice  ;  clearness  of  diagram, 
if  any ;  closing  sentence ;  answering  questions,  if  any ;  correct- 
ness of  speech ;  enthusiasm ;  interest ;  the  program  as  a  whole. 

5.  The  work  of  the  committees. 

6.  The  transaction  of  bu.siness :  knowledge  of  the  rules  of 
order;  attitude  of  members  toward  the  officers  and  toward  each 
other ;  value  of  the  business  carried  out. 

7.  The  meeting  as  a  whole ;  and  general  suggestions. 


326  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

The  Other  Officers 

Treasurer.  This  officer  keeps  safe  the  funds  of  the  society,  and 
pays  them  out  only  by  vote  of  the  society  and  on  a  written  order 
signed  by  the  president  or  secretary  or  both.  If  the  work  of  the 
society  is  at  all  complicated,  he  had  best  consult  a  bookkeeping 
teacher  about  the  best  way  to  keep  the  accounts.  His  books 
should  show  the  record  of  each  member  in  payment  of  his  dues, 
and  the  amount  of  money  received  on  any  given  date.  Record  of 
dues  may  be  kept  in  columns,  with  names  of  members  at  the  left, 
and  dates  at  the  top  of  the  columns.  It  is  desirable  that  the  totals 
and  balances  in  each  of  the  various  funds  should  be  easily  figured  at 
any  time.  At  any  meeting  he  should  be  able  to  tell  the  approximate 
amount  in  the  treasury.  He  should  make  frequent  written  reports 
to  the  society.  School  classes  will  of  course  need  no  treasurer. 
If  a  small  assessment  is  voted,  the  secretary  or  any  other  member 
may  be  instructed  to  collect  and  handle  the  money.  The  treasurer 
of  a  society,  for  the  protection  of  his  own  reputation,  should  insist 
that  his  accounts  be  audited  by  a  committee  representing  the 
society.  Accounts  may  be  audited  quarterly,  and  in  every  case 
when  the  books  and  money  pass  into  the  hands  of  a  new  treasurer. 

Sergeant  at  Arms.  A  school  class  should  not  need  a  sergeant  at 
arms.  One  is  needed  when  arrangements  are  necessary  as  to  furni- 
ture, ventilation,  errands,  care  of  spectators,  etc.,  or  where  the 
meeting  is  large  and  apt  to  be  disorderly.  The  sergeant  at  arms  is 
under  the  direction  of  the  chairman  or  president,  whose  orders  he 
carries  out. 

Historian.  This  officer  keeps  a  book  containing  the  story  of  the 
progress  of  the  society,  together  with  press  notices,  programs,  pub- 
lications, photographs,  and  other  documents  of  historical  interest. 

Various  combinations  and  divisions  of  offices  and  duties  are 
made :  financial  secretary,  to  collect  the  dues  and  turn  the  money 
over  to  the  treasurer ;  recording  secretary,  to  keep  papers  and 
minutes  ;  corresponding  secretary,  to  attend  to  communications ; 
secretary-treasurer,  to  cover  the  duties  of  both  offices. 


COMMITTEES  327 

Special  duties  are  sometimes  given  to  persons  with  special  titles : 
curator,  who  has  charge  of  clubrooms  and  library ;  superintendent 
or  manager  ;  librarian  ;  doorkeeper ;  timekeeper ;  marshal ;  cash- 
ier; inspector;  engineer;  attorney.  Many  of  these  are  paid,  and 
often  are  not  members  of  the  organization.  A  paid  clerk  often 
takes  the  heavier  work  of  the  secretary,  and  sometimes  altogether 
takes  the  place  of  a  secretary. 

VII.    COMMITTEE  WORK  AND  REPORTS 

Need  for  and  Kinds  of  Committees.  Committees  are  appointed 
either  iyi}  to  carry  out  some  action,  as,  for  instance,  to  arrange  for 
and  manage  a  lecture ;  or  (2)  to  carry  on  some  ifwestigatio?i,  such 
as,  for  example,  to  see  if  conditions  at  the  city  jail  need  improving. 
In  either  case  the  organization  as  a  whole  is  too  big  and  too  busy 
to  handle  the  problem,  and  therefore  a  smaller  group  is  chosen. 
Selection  is  usually  made  by  the  president,  though  upon  motion 
the  society  may  nominate  and  elect  the  members  of  a  committee. 

Some  of  the  duties  which  must  be  performed  by  committees 
need  continuous  attention,  and  for  such  duties  standing  committees 
are  chosen,  which  have  regular  meetings  and  a  more  or  less  fixed 
membership.  If  the  officers  are  elected  annually  or  semiannually, 
each  incoming  president  makes  up  the  list  of  names  for  these 
committees.  The  names  of  the  committees  should  be  listed  in 
the  l)y-laws,  or,  if  they  are  of  great  importance,  in  the  constitution. 
Common  standing  committees  are  these :  membership,  program, 
legislation,  clubhouse,  finance.  Large  organizations  often  have 
an  "  executive  committee  "  or  "  board  of  managers  "  or  "  board 
of  control "  which  is  made  up  of  the  officers  of  the  society  and 
a  few  other  members  elected  by  the  society.  Such  a  committee 
acts  for  the  society  itself,  and  the  society  then  votes  only  on 
matters  of  great  importance. 

Temporary  duties  are  handled  by  special  or  select  committees, 
which  go  out  of  office  as  soon  as  their  reports  are  made  to  the 
society.    A  select  committee  may  be  created  by  a  principal  motion, 


328  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

or  by  a  motion  to  refer  to  a  committee  a  matter  already  before 
the  house. 

How  Committees  Work.  If  no  one  is  designated  as  chairman  of 
a  committee,  the  first  person  named  or  the  one  receiving  the  high- 
est number  of  votes  acts  as  chairman,  though  the  committee  itself 
in  such  a  case  may  choose  its  own  permanent  chairman.  The 
meetings  of  the  committee  may  be  exactly  like  the  meetings  of  a 
small  assembly  except  that  they  usually  avoid  the  more  complex 
motions.  Indeed,  in  most  of  the  committees  to  which  young  peo- 
ple will  belong,  no  motions  should  be  needed.  Informal  discussion 
and  agreement  should  be  enough.  The  chairman  may  delegate  to 
each  member  of  the  committee  some  special  section  of  the  work 
to  be  done  or  a  part  of  the  investigation  to  be  made.  Such  indi- 
vidual or  subcommittee  work  should  be  under  the  direction  of  the 
chairman  of  the  committee,  and  reports  should  be  made  to  him. 
Then  the  committee  prepares  its  report.  If  the  committee  is  ap- 
pointed to  carry  out  some  action,  the  report  will  give  merely  the 
statement  of  what  has  been  done,  together  with  a  financial  account 
if  any  money  has  been  handled.  If  an  investigation  has  been 
carried  on,  a  more  complicated  process  will  be  necessary.  The 
committee  numbers  will  need  to  agree  on  a  statement  of  the  prob- 
lem and  on  the  recommendations  they  intend  to  make.  The  chair- 
man, or  an  elected  secretary,  or  a  subcommittee,  may  be  directed  to 
prepare  and  bring  to  a  meeting  a  proposed  report,  and  the  various 
ideas  suggested  may  be  debated  and  voted  on.  Reports  should  be 
carefully  and  clearly  arranged,  according  to  some  such  plan  as  this  : 

SUGGESTED  OUTLINE  FOR  A  COMMITTEE  REPORT 

1.  The  reasons  for  the  appointment  of  the  committee. 

2.  The  manner  of  investigation. 

3.  The  results  of  the  investigation. 

4.  The  recommendations  of  the  committee. 

What  is  voted  by  a  majority  of  the  members  of  the  committee 
constitutes  the  report  of  the  committee.    Any  member  or  group  of 


COMMITTEES  329 

members  of  the  committee  may,  however,  write  out  a  different 
report,  and  may  propose  it  as  a  minority  report. 

What  is  done  with  the  Reports.  The  report  of  the  committee 
is  usually  read  at  the  meeting  by  its  chairman.  When  the  time 
comes  for  reports  in  the  order  of  business,  he  may  rise  and  an- 
nounce that  his  committee  has  a  report  to  make.  If  any  objection 
is  made,  a  motion  to  receive  the  report  will  be  necessary.  When 
the  report  has  been  read,  it  is  handed  to  the  secretary,  and  if  no 
further  action  is  necessary,  the  chairman  of  the  meeting  may  direct 
that  it  be  "  placed  on  file,"  which  means  that  it  be  kept  among  the 
records.  But  if  it  is  a  financial  report  which  needs  to  be  approved, 
or  if  it  contains  definite  recommendations,  then  the  chairman  of 
the  committee  or  somebody  else  may  move  that  the  report  be 
approved,  accepted,  or  adopted,  all  of  which  terms  mean  the  same 
thing  — •  that  the  accounts  are  satisfactory  and  shall  be  paid,  or  that 
the  recommendations  shall  be  carried  into  effect.  Before  this 
motion  is  voted  upon,  the  minority  report  or  reports  may  be  pre- 
sented, and  an  amendment  may  be  moved  to  substitute  for  the 
motion  before  the  house  the  motion  to  adopt  the  minority  report. 
In  either  case,  any  member  of  the  society  may  move  to  amend  the 
recommendations  of  the  committee,  and  of  course  the  amendment 
may  be  amended,  or  the  whole  matter  may  be  referred  back  to  the 
same  committee  or  to  another  committee,  or  it  may  be  postponed, 
or  laid  on  the  table,  etc. 

Sometimes  a  motion  to  accept  a  report  includes  a  clause  that 
the  committee  be  discharged,  but  it  is  usually  taken  for  granted 
that  with  its  final  report  a  committee  is  automatically  dissolved. 
When  a  committee  report  is  called  for  but  is  not  ready,  the  chair- 
man may  report  "  progress,"  or  he  may  tell  informally  what  has 
been  done  so  far  and  what  is  planned.  When  there  is  dissatisfac- 
tion with  the  work  or  the  report  of  a  committee,  a  motion  may  be 
made  to  discharge  the  committee,  or  to  reject  its  report,  or  to  con- 
tinue the  committee  for  a  further  investigation,  or  to  require  a 
report  upon  a  certain  date. 

For  committee  of  the  whole,  see  below. 


330  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

VIIL    SPECIAL   POINTS    IN    PARLIAMENTARY   LAW 
Some  Special  Motions 

1.  Closing  Nominations.  This  motion  is  neither  debatable  nor 
amendable,  and  requires  only  a  majority  vote. 

2.  Limiting  Debate.    See  Previous  Question,  above. 

3.  Making  a  Special  Order.    See  Suspension  of  Rules,  above, 

4.  Reconsider.  Suppose  that  in  a  society  which  holds  weekly  meet- 
ings, a  motion  is  voted  on,  July  i.  Any  person  who  voted  on  the 
winning  side  may  on  the  same  day  move  a  reconsideration  of  the  ques- 
tion, provided  no  other  business  is  before  the  house.  Or  he  may  make 
this  motion  at  the  next  meeting,  July  8,  but  not  at  any  later  meeting. 
The  motion  to  reconsider  is  debatable  if  the  original  motion  was  de- 
batable, and  may  have  the  motion  to  stop  debate  and  lay  on  the  table 
applied  to  it.  If  reconsideration  is  carried,  the  former  vote  on  the 
motion  is  canceled,  and  the  question  is  before  the  house  in  exactly 
the  shape  it  was  before  the  vote  was  taken. 

If  the  person  who  wishes  a  reconsideration  finds  other  business 
before  the  house,  or  if  he  does  not  wish  the  new  vote  at  once,  he  may 
give  notice  of  a  moiion  to  reconsider.  This  notice  is  in  order  at  any 
time,  even  when  another  speaker  has  the  floor,  and  the  secretary  must 
make  record  in  the  minutes  that  the  notice  was  given.  Such  a  notice 
might  be  given,  in  the  case  we  were  supposing  above,  on  July  i  or 
July  8,  but  not  at  any  later  meeting.  The  person  giving  the  notice 
may  call  up  the  motion  to  reconsider,  to  be  debated  and  voted  on, 
the  same  day  he  gave  notice,  provided  the  way  is  open  for  a  main 
motion.  Another  person  than  the  one  giving  the  notice  may  not  call 
the  reconsideration  till  the  next  meeting  after  the  notice. 

To  sum  up  for  a  motion  decided  July  i  :  Notice  of  a  motion  to 
reconsider,  or  the  motion  to  reconsider,  are  in  order  July  i  and  July  8. 
The  motion  is  in  order  July  1 5,  provided  notice  was  given  on  the  8th. 

Reconsideration  cannot  be  applied  to  the  motion  to  adjourn,  suspend 
the  rules,  reconsider,  lay  on  the  table,  and  stop  debate.  If  applied  to 
motions  which  hold  up  the  reconsideration  of  the  main  question,  such 
as  postpone,  refer,  reading  papers,  etc.,  it  must  be  voted  upon  and 
settled  at  once,  and  no  notice  or  other  delay  is  possible.  Reconsidera- 
tion cannot  be  amended.     Other  rules  on  reconsideration  —  the  most 


SPECIAL  PROCESSES  331 

technical  of  all  motions  and  processes  —  will  be  found  in  Robert, 
pp.  73,  184  (rev.  ed.  p.  156),  and  in  Gregg,  pp.  35,  84.  The  above  is  a 
mere  outline  of  its  use.  The  student  is  advised  to  try  simple  problems 
in  reconsideration  first. 

5.  Rescind.    This  is  a  principal  motion  (see  above). 

6.  Rise.  This  motion  is  used  in  committee  meetings,  and  is  exactly 
the  same  as  adjourn. 

7.  Take  from  the  Table.    See  Lay  on  the  Table,  above. 

Some  Special  Processes 

1.  Committee  of  the  Whole.  Whenever  the  motion  to  refer  to  a 
committee  or  to  appoint  a  committee  is  in  order,  it  is  allowable  to 
make  the  motion  to  go  into  the  comtnittce  of  the  whole.  This  means 
that  the  whole  society  changes  itself  temporarily  into  a  committee  for 
the  consideration  of  the  matter  specified  by  the  motion.  If  the  motion 
carries,  the  chairman  usually  appoints  somebody  as  chairman  of  the 
committee  of  the  whole.  The  meeting  then  proceeds  to  talk  over  the 
subject  in  an  informal  way,  just  as  would  any  other  committee.  Only 
the  motions  to  recommend  to  the  society,  to  amend,  to  postpone  in- 
definitely, and  to  rise  (adjourn)  are  used.  Upon  the  rising  of  the  com- 
mittee the  meeting  of  the  society  is  called  to  order  by  its  president  or 
chairman,  and  the  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  whole  gives  its 
report,  which  is  then  acted  on  as  explained  on  page  329. 

2.  Executive  Session.  A  secret  session  of  a  society,  or  a  short 
secret  consultation,  may  be  voted  for  by  a  majority  of  the  members. 
All  visitors  must  then  retire.  Executive  sessions  should  rarely  be  neces- 
sary. This  motion  should  be  in  order  whenever  the  motion  for  the 
pre\aous  question  is  in  order. 

3.  Filling  Blanks.    See  Amend,  above. 

4.  Informal  Action.  The  need  for  and  value  of  informal  action 
have  been  explained  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter. 

5.  Methods  of  Voting.  The  usual  way  is  by  saying  "  aye  "  or  "  no  " 
as  the  affirmative  and  negative  votes  are  called  for.  This  is  called 
viva-voce  voting. 

When  there  is  doubt  a  division  may  be  called  for :  "  Mr.  Chairman, 
I  call  for  a  division."  This  means  a  counted  vote,  usually  accomplished 
by  standing  or  by  raising  the  hands.  Anybody  may  call  for  a  division 
(discussion  may  be  renewed),  and  the  chairman  must  take  the  vote. 


332  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

Voting  by  ballot  gives  secrecy.  The  ballots  are  small,  uniform  pieces 
of  paper  on  which  the  members  write  "  yes,"  "  no,"  or  the  name  of  one 
or  more  of  the  candidates.  The  papers  are  folded  once  and  handed  to 
the  tellers,  who  count  the  vote  and  report  to  the  chairman.  Scoring 
should  always  be  done  by  means  of  four  marks  and  the  tally.  Just 
before  any  vote  is  to  be  taken,  the  motion  to  vote  by  ballot  is  in  order, 
and  the  majority  decides,  without  debate. 

Elections  for  office  should  be  held  by  ballot  unless  there  is  a  law 
or  rule  to  the  contrary.  When  there  is  but  one  candidate  the  chairman 
may  declare  the  person  elected,  or,  if  the  rules  require  a  ballot,  the 
motion  may  be  made  that  the  secretary  be  instructed  to  cast  one  bal- 
lot for  the  one  candidate.  This  the  secretary  does  by  writing  the  name 
of  the  candidate  upon  a  slip  of  paper  and  handing  it  to  the  chairman. 
The  chairman  then  declares  the  member  elected. 

The  roll-call  vote  gives  a  permanent  record  of  each  person's  vote. 
He  answers  "  aye  "  or  "  no  "  as  his  name  is  called ;  the  secretary  keeps 
the  record,  and  counts  and  announces  the  result.  This  is  called  voting 
by  yeas  and  nays.  A  majority  may  order  a  roll-call  vote  upon  any 
question ;  in  some  societies  one  fifth  of  the  members  or  even  one 
member  may  demand  the  yeas  and  nays. 

Whenever  any  vote  is  by  division  or  by  yeas  and  nays,  any  member 
has  the  right  to  change  his  vote  before  the  final  result  is  announced. 

A  straw  vote  is  an  unoflficial  test  vote  to  show  what  the  members 
believe ;  it  cannot  decide  anything. 

6.  Nomination  and  Election.  On  the  day  for  an  election  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  announce  the  election  in  order  as  the  first  thing  under  new 
business.  One  who  makes  a  nomination  has  a  right  at  that  time  to 
make  a  speech  (see  Chapter  XI).  Nominations  do  not  need  seconding. 
The  secretary  should  record  the  names  in  order  of  nomination.  A 
member  who  makes  a  nomination  must  not  neglect  voting  for  that 
person,  at  least  on  the  first  vote.  Some  societies  have  a  committee 
to  propose  nominations,  but  their  report  should  not  prevent  other 
indorsements.  Some  organizations  nominate  by  secret  ballot  —  the 
two  or  three  persons  receiving  the  highest  number  of  votes  are  placed 
in  nomination.  Again,  other  societies  have  nominations  by  petition ; 
a  person  may  be  placed  in  nomination  if  a  certain  fraction,  perhaps 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  members  sign  a  request  that  he  be  a  candidate. 
Names  should  be  put  on  the  blackboard  or  published  in  some  other 


SPECIAL  TERMS  333 

way.  When  voting  by  ballot,  the  vote  for  all  offices  should  be  on  the 
same  ballot,  as  is  customaiy  in  governmental  elections.  In  case  a 
majority  vote  for  any  office  is  lacking,  a  new  vote  must  be  taken.  The 
society  may  rule  to  drop  out  all  but  the  two  highest  candidates  for  the 
second  election,  as  many  cities  now  do,  otherwise  all  the  names  stand 
for  the  second  vote.  The  constitution  may  specify  when  the  terms  of 
office  begin,  otherwise  the  new  officers  take  their  places  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  election. 

7.  Renewal  of  a  Motion.  A  defeated  main  motion  or  amendment 
cannot  be  again  moved  at  the  same  session.  Other  questions  may 
usually  be  renewed  whenever  debating  or  voting  has  taken  place  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  the  situation  different..  That  is  to  say,  it  is  not  in 
order  to  renew  a  motion  just  after  it  has  been  lost  and  before  condi- 
tions have  changed. 

Technical  Terms 

1.  At  Large.  One  is  said  to  be  "  member  at  large,"  or  to  be  elected 
at  large,  when  he  is  chosen  from  among  all  the  members,  instead  of 
from  any  one  group,  or  locality,  or  on  account  of  his  holding  any  office. 

2.  Call  of  the  House.  An  attempt  to  find  absent  members  and  to 
compel  them  to  attend.  It  is  used  to  obtain  a  quorum,  or  to  get  a  full 
vote  on  a  measure  before  the  hoase. 

3.  Commit.    Same  as  7-efer. 

4.  Credentials.  A  written  document,  signed  by  at  least  two  officers, 
stating  that  the  person  mentioned  has  a  certain  office  or  authority,  as, 
for  example,  that  he  is  a  duly  elected  delegate  or  representative  of 
the  society. 

5.  Division.    A  counted  vote  (see  p.  331). 

6.  Ex-of&cio.  On  account  of  the  office;  for  example,  the  president 
of  a  society  may  be  ex-officio  a  member  of  the  finance  committee. 

7.  Majority  and  Plurality.  A  candidate  is  said  to  have  a  majority 
when  he  has  over  half  the  total  number  of  votes  cast ;  he  has  a 
plurality  if  he  has  more  votes  than  any  other  candidate. 

8.  Meeting  and  Session.  In  ordinary  societies  these  two  terms  have 
the  same  meaning  —  a  gathering  of  members  for  the  consideration  of 
reports  and  the  transaction  of  old  and  new  business.  In  Congress, 
however,  in  conventions,  and  in  many  other  societies,  a  gathering  is 
often  adjourned  in  the  midst  of  the  order  of  business,  and  the  next 


334  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

gathering  goes  on  with  the  same  business  just  as  if  a  recess  had 
taken  place.  Each  assembly  is  called  a  meeting ;  while  a  completed, 
rounded-out  convention  or  a  series  of  meetings  is  called  a  session. 
Thus  a  session  may  last  all  day,  three  days,  or  three  months ;  while 
a  meeting  will  hardly  last  more  than  three  hours,  unless  perhaps  the 
lunch  or  supper  time  is  called  a  recess.  If  a  new  meeting  hears  the 
minutes,  reports,  and  old  business,  it  is  a  new  session  also. 

9.  Pending.  A  motion  is  said  to  be  pending  when  it  has  been 
moved,  seconded,  and  stated,  and  has  not  yet  been  voted  on,  post- 
poned, referred  to  a  committee,  or  otherwise  disposed  of.  Again,  a 
motion  is  pending  if  it  has  become  due  after  a  postponement  or  is 
reported  on  by  a  committee.  A  motion  is  said  to  be  itntnediately 
pendifig  when  it  is  the  motion  then  before  the  house  for  vote. 

10.  Plurality.    See  Majority  and  Plurality,  above. 

11.  Priority.  Same  as  precedence.  A  motion  is  said  to  have 
priority  over  another  motion  when  it  can  supplant  it,  that  is,  when 
it  takes  precedence  over  the  other  motion. 

12.  Pro  tem.  When  an  officer  is  absent,  some  other  person  is  put 
in  his  place  temporarily.  For  example,  in  the  temporary  absence  of  the 
regular  secretary,  a  member  may  act  as  secretary  pro  tem :  he  serves 
"  for  the  time  "  only. 

13.  Proxy.  A  written  statement, -signed  by  a  member,  by  which  he 
gives  his  right  to  vote  at  a  certain  meeting  to  another  member.  Proxies 
are  usually  voted  only  in  the  case  of  very  important  matters,  such  as 
elections  and  constitutional  amendments. 

14.  Quorum.  Enough  members  to  hold  a  meeting.  Half  the  mem- 
bership is  the  usual  rule,  although  each  society  may  have  its  own  rule. 

15.  Session.    See  Meeting  and  Session,  above. 

16.  Sine  die.  At  the  end  of  its  session  a  convention  adjourns  sine 
die;  that  is,  it  adjourns  "  without  a  day"  set  for  meeting  again.  Ordi- 
nary societies  simply  adjourn  till  the  next  regular  meeting. 

17.  Teller.  A  person  appointed  by  the  chairman  to  distribute  the 
blank  ballots  and  to  collect  and  count  them.  The  chairman  must  see 
that  the  tellers  are  not  actively  interested  in  the  election,  and  that  they 
represent  different  opinions  in  the  society.  Tellers  must  not  electioneer. 

18.  Two-thirds  Vote.  A  two-to-one  vote;  for  example,  lo  to  5,  or 
25  to  1 2.  But  I  2  to  8  is  not  a  two-thirds  vote,  because  i  2  is  not  at  least 
two  thirds  of  20,  the  total  number  of  votes  cast. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  335 

19.  Viva-voce  Vote.  The  vote  taken  by  answering  in  unison  first 
"  aye  "  and  then  "  no." 

20.  Warrant.  A  document  authorizing  a  person  to  perform  some 
act.  such  as  a  paper  allowing  him  to  collect  a  sum  of  money  from 
the  treasurer  of  a  society.  Such  a  paper  is  also  called  an  "  order  on 
the  treasurer." 

Special  Forms 

1.  Calling  for  Business.  "What  is  your  (further)  pleasure?"'  "Is 
there  any  further  business  to  come  before  the  meeting.?"  "Are  there 
any  other  motions  ?  "    "  The  house  is  now  open  for  new  business." 

2.  Calling  for  a  Second.  "  Is  there  a  second  to  the  motion?  "  "  Do 
I  hear  a  second?  "    "  Is  the  motion  seconded? " 

3.  Calling  for  Debate.  "Are  you  ready  for  the  question?"  "Is 
there  any  debate?"  "Is  there  any  discussion?"  "Are  there  any 
remarks  ?  " 

4.  Taking  a  Vote.  "Those  in  favor  say  'aye.'  Those  opposed, 
'  no.'  "  "  Those  favoring  the  motion  respond  by  the  usual  sign,"  etc. 
"  As  many  as  are  in  favor  of  the  motion  please  signify  the  same  by  say- 
ing '  aye,'  "  etc.  "  Those  who  favor  the  motion  will  give  their  assent  by 
responding  '  aye,' "  etc.  In  calling  for  the  vote  on  every  motion,  the 
chairman  should  always  state  briefly  but  exactly  just  what  the  question  is. 

5.  Committee  Reports.    See  page  327. 

6.  Communications.  These  are  read  under  reports  of  officers,  by  the 
secretary ;  he  reports  having  received  the  communications.  They  should 
be  brief  and  businesslike,  else  they  may  not  be  read  at  all,  on  account  of 
lack  of  time.  If  a  communication  to  a  society  is  to  contain  a  statement 
and  a  request,  see  page  102.  If  it  is  to  contain  an  announcement, 
see  page  176.  Communications  may  be  "placed  on  file,"  referred  to 
committees,  or  agreed  to  by  means  of  an  ordinary  main  motion. 

7.  Critic's  Report.  See  page  325.  The  following  is  an  actual  report 
of  an  Oral  English  class,  with  initials  for  the  names : 

Critic's  Report,  Sixth  Period  Oral  English  Society, 

May  29,   19 — 

At  the  beginning  of  the  period  a  great  deal  of  trouble  was  caused  by 
the  negligence  of  Mr.  K.  in  not  writing  his  critic's  report,  but  this  was 
soon  straightened  out  by  Mr.  S.,  the  president. 


336  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

Mr.  B.  was  the  first  to  begin  the  program,  and  he  gave  a  very  interest- 
ing account  of  his  visit  to  a  gold  mine. 

Mr.  D.'s  talk  on  the  necessity  of  city  ownership  of  city  railways  was 
well  given  but  short. 

Next  Mr.  F.  told  us  how  hay  is  baled.  His  account  was  not  very  clear, 
and  if  he  had  more  nearly  faced  the  class  instead  of  the  blackboard,  we 
should  have  understood  him  a  little  better. 

Miss  G.  gave  us  some  good  reasons  why  girls  should  take  a  little  manual 
training,  and  why  boys  should  know  a  little  about  domestic  science. 

A  joke  was  given  by  Mr.  H.,  but  no  one  laughed. 

Mr.  J.'s  announcement  regarding  the  Marathon  race  was  not  very  clear, 
and  he  did  not  emphasize  the  time  and  place  of  the  race. 

Mr.  G.  talked  about  the  formation  of  coal  from  a  college  professor's 
theory.    His  account  was  good. 

Mr.  M.  gave  us  a  few  reasons  why  he  thought  that  girls  should  be  taught 
fencing,  but  he  was  not  very  enthusiastic  in  his  argument. 

A  description  of  the  Sierra  Madre  Mountains  was  given  us  by  Mr.  K. 
His  description  was  good,  but  short. 

Mr.  S.  and  Mr.  M.  had  a  small  battle  of  words  on  the  ability  of  Mr.  M. 
to  handle  a  meeting,  but  our  honorable  president  quelled  the  uprising  and 
continued  with  the  meeting. 

I  do  not  think  that  the  recall  bill,  that  was  passed  at  the  last  meeting, 
is  fair  to  the  members  of  the  class  who  cannot  handle  a  meeting  as  well  as 
some  others.  They  will  never  learn  how  to  conduct  a  meeting  unless  they 
are  given  a  chance. 

Mr.  S.  conducted  the  meeting  very  well. 

(Signed)  R B 

Critic 

The  critic's  report  need  not  be  accepted  or  amended,  as  it  is  but  the 

opinion  of  one  individual. 

8.  Minutes.    See  page  325.    The  following  is  an  actual  report  of  a 

secretary  of  an  Oral  English  class : 

Minutes  of  the  Intermediate  Parliamentary  Club, 

May  28,  19 — 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  Miss  A.,  and  Mr.  V.  was  elected 
chairman.    Mr.  V.  chose  Mr.  A.  for  secretary  and  Miss  N.  for  critic. 

The  minutes  of  May  27  were  read  and  approved ;  then  the  critic  gave 
his  report. 


SPECIAL  FORMS  337 

The  chair  then  called  for  committee  reports.  The  following  reports 
were  given : 

Mr.  P.,  Dangers  to  school  children  from  reckless  drivers. 

Miss  I.,  Having  wires  put  underground. 

Miss  M.,  Having  more  factories  in  Los  Angeles. 

Mr.  B.,  The  school  study-hall  system. 

Miss  K.,  A  proper  lighting  system. 

Miss  W.,  Student  government. 

Miss  S.,  Whether  or  not  Los  Angeles  should  own  its  own  street  railways. 

Old  business  was  called  for,  and  the  motion  was  that  there  should 
be  a  sidewalk  from  the  auditorium  to  the  main  walk.  It  was  moved  and 
seconded  to  amend  it  to  read  "  to  the  study  hall."  The  amendment  was 
lost.  Then  it  was  moved  and  seconded  to  lay  the  matter  on  the  table  ;  the 
motion  was  carried. 

Under  new  business  it  was  moved  and  seconded  that  we  have  a  boys' 
handball  court.  It  was  moved  and  seconded  that  the  motion  be  amended 
to  read  "  a  court  for  the  girls  and  a  court  for  the  boys."  The  amendment 
was  lost.  It  was  moved  and  seconded  that  the  motion  be  amended  to 
read  "  a  large  gymnasium  for  the  girls."  The  amendment  was  carried.  The 
motion,  which  now  read  "  a  large  gymnasium  for  the  girls,"  was  voted  upon 
and  carried. 

It  was  moved  and  seconded  that  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  school  should 
be  allowed  to  leave  the  yard  at  noon.  It  was  moved  and  seconded  that 
the  motion  be  amended  to  include  the  boys  and  girls  of  all  schools.  The 
amendment  was  carried.  The  motion  as  amended  was  now  voted  upon 
and  lost. 

It  was  moved  and  seconded  that  when  a  pupil  is  tardy  he  should  make 
up  the  exact  time  that  he  misses.    The  motion  was  voted  and  carried. 

It  was  moved  and  seconded  that  a  big  cafeteria  be  built  in  the  yard.  It 
was  moved,  seconded,  and  carried  to  lay  the  matter  on  the  table. 

It  was  moved  and  seconded  that  no  teacher  should  be  allowed  to  leave 
the  yard  at  noon. 

The  meeting  was  adjourned  by  the  chairman  at  the  end  of  the  period. 

(Signed)  R.  V.  A 

Secretary 

After  the  minutes  have  been  read,  the  chairman  says.  "Are  there 
any  omissions  or  corrections?"  If  none  are  offered,  the  chairman  de- 
clares, "  The  minutes  are  approved  as  read."  (A  motion  is  not  neces- 
sary, except  in  very  important  organizations.)    When  a  correction  is 


338  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 

proposed,  if  it  seems  obviously  just  and  no  objection  is  raised,  the 
chairman  says,  "The  secretary  will  please  make  the  change."  If  the 
propriety  of  the  correction  is  in  doubt,  a  motion  to  amend  the  minutes 
may  be  made.  This  is  treated  as  a  main  motion.  Finally,  when  the 
necessary  charges  are  completed,  the  chairman  announces,  "  The  minutes 
stand  approved  as  corrected." 

The  motion  "  to  dispense  with  the  reading  of  the  minutes  "  in  effect 
suspends  the  order  of  business,  and  should  therefore  require  a  two- 
thirds  vote. 

9.  Notices.    See  Communications,  and  Reconsider,  above. 

10.  Resolutions.  These  usually  include  two  parts,  the  reasons  and 
the  conclusions.    The  following  is  the  common  form : 

Resolutions 

Whereas,  our  friend  Mr.  W.  O.  .Smith  has  been  a  member  of  this  organ- 
ization from  its  beginning,  and  has  served  the  society  in  several  important 
offices ;  and 

Whereas,  Mr.  Smith  has  now  signified  his  intention  to  withdraw  from 
the  society  on  account  of  his  removal  to  another  city ; 

Now,  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  that  we  hereby  signify  our  sincere  appreciation  of  the  per- 
sonal character  and  high  abilities  of  Mr.  Smith,  and  that  we  heartily  wish 
him  well  in  his  new  field  of  work ;  and,  be  it  further 

Resolved,  that  we  recommend  Mr.  Smith  to  the  fellowship  of  similar 
organizations  in  other  cities ;  and,  be  it  finally 

Resolved,  that  these  resolutions  be  spread  upon  the  minutes,  and  that 
copies  be  sent  to  Mr.  Smith  and  to  the  press. 

11.  Roll  Call.  The  secretary  should  list  the  members'  names  at  the 
left  of  a  page  in  the  front  or  back  of  the  minute  book,  ruling  columns 
for  the  dates.  Marks  should  be  made  for  the  absentees.  If  the  rules 
allow  excuses,  the  secretary  must  indicate  which  absences  have  been 
excused.  Care  must  be  taken  to  cancel  the  marks  opposite  the  names 
of  those  who  come  late. 

12.  Treasurer's  Records.    See  page  326. 


APPENDIX   I 

ARRANGING  AND   CONDUCTING  DEBATES 

1.  AN  INTERSCHOOL  DEBATE 

THE  AGREEMENT 

1.  A  double  or  simultaneous  contest  shall  be  held,  each  school 
upholding  the  affirmative  of  the  proposition  in  the  debate  at  its 
own  school  and-  the  negative  in  the  debate  at  the  school  of  its 
opponents. 

2.  The  proposition  for  debate  shall  be,  "  Resolved,  that  .  .  ." 
When  the  two  schools  have  agreed  to  have  a  debate,  the  school 
which  proposed  the  contest  submits  two  propositions  to  the  other 
school.  The  school  receiving  the  proposition  selects  one  of  these 
for  the  debate,  and  notifies  the  first  school  within  one  week  from 
the  time  the  two  propositions  were  received. 

3.  The  date  shall  be  on  .  .  .,  at  .  .  .  p.m.  In  most  cases  there 
should  be  from  six  to  ten  weeks  allowed  for  preparation,  though 
debates  may  often  be  prepared  in  much  shorter  time. 

4.  The  number  of  speakers  on  each  side  shall  be  two. 

5.  The  time  allowed  each  speaker  shall  be  as  follows : 

Constructive  Speeches 

1.  First  affirmative lo  minutes 

2.  P'irst  negative 12  minutes 

3.  Second  affirmative 12  minutes 

4.  Second  negative 12  minutes 

339 


340  APPENDIX  I 

Refutation  Speeches 

5.  First  affirmative 6  minutes 

6.  First  negative 6  minutes 

7.  Second  affirmative 6  minutes 

8.  Second  negative 6  minutes 

Final  Rebuttal 

9.  First  affirmative 4  minutes 

If  it  seems  best  to  have  shorter  speeches,  the  opening  speech  may  be 
six  minutes,  each  of  the  next  three  may  be  eight  minutes,  the  refu- 
tation speeches  each  four  minutes,  and  the  final  speech  two  minutes. 

6.  Judges  shall  be  selected  by  the  principals  of  the  tv^o  schools. 
Each  principal  may  send  to  the  other  the  names  of  ten  persons 
who  would  be  acceptable  as  judges  at  his  own  school.  The  other 
principal  indicates  his  preferences,  and  from  the  returned  list  the 
first  principal  chooses  the  judges  for  the  debate  at  his  school,  and 
communicates  with  them.  Requests  should  be  sent  at  least  two 
weeks  in  advance.  In  case  a  person  asked  cannot  serve,  another 
on  the  list  is  tried.  Judges  should  be  reminded  a  day  or  two 
before  the  contest. 

Teachers  are  the  best  judges  for  school  debates.  Lawyers  pay 
too  much  attention  to  technicalities.  If  the  judges  are  men  who  sel- 
dom hear  girls  debate,  there  may  be  some  unfair  favor  shown. 
Ministers  may  show  favor  in  questions  based  on  moral  issues. 

7.  Other  officers  of  the  debate  should  be  as  follows:  At  each 
debate  the  president  of  the  debating  society  of  the  home  school 
may  be  the  chairman.  Two  students,  one  from  each  school,  may 
act  as  timekeepers  for  the  debaters. 

8.  Expenses  of  the  judges  are  met  by  the  school  at  which  they 
serve.  Debaters'  expenses  are  met  by  themselves,  or  by  the  school 
to  which  they  belong. 

9.  The  decision  in  each  debate  is  found  by  the  independent 
votes  of  the  three  judges.     (If  scoring  is  desired,  see  section  2. 


ARRANGING  AND  CONDUCTING  DEBATES    341 

below.)  Judges  should  be  instructed  as  follows  :  Favor  those  who 
use  the  extempore  style  of  speaking.  Subject  matter  is  to  be  con- 
sidered two  or  three  times  as  important  as  delivery  and  diction 
together.  Teamwork  should  be  considered  —  cooperation  in  argu- 
ment between  the  two  speakers,  as  shown  by  the  division  of  the 
points,  summaries,  absence  of  overlapping,  etc.  The  award  should 
be  made  only  upon  arguments  presented  and  arguments  met,  and 
not  upon  the  merits  of  the  proposition  as  believed  by  the  judges. 
10.  General  rules : 

a.  No  school  shall  submit  a  proposition  for  debate  which  it  has 
debated  with  another  school  within  the  two  previous  years. 

b.  Undergraduate  students,  who  have  not  completed  the  work  required 
for  graduation,  who  are  each  doing  the  full  amount  of  work  as  regular 
students,  and  who  are  each  satisfactory  at  the  time  of  the  debate  in  three 
fourths  of  their  work,  shall  be  allowed  to  take  part  in  a  debate.  Princi- 
pals shall  exchange  credentials. 

c.  No  applause  shall  be  allowed  during  a  speech. 

d.  Nothing  shall  be  done  or  said  to  the  judges,  outside  the  actual 
debate,  which  might  in  any  way  influence  their  decision. 

e.  No  prompting  shall  be  allowed.  No  signaling  of  any  kind  shall 
be  allowed,  except  the  rapping  of  the  timekeepers,  of  the  chairman,  or 
of  a  colleague. 

f.  In  case  any  map,  chart,  diagram,  or  other  graphic  aid  is  used  by  any 
debater,  such  aid  shall  be  on  display  only  during  the  time  allotted  to  the 
school  using  it,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  distinctly  visible  to  the 
opposing  team.  (By  mutual  agreement,  either  or  both  of  these  provisions 
may  be  waived.)  Such  map  or  other  aid  shall,  after  the  speech  in  which 
it  is  first  displayed,  pass  into  the  keeping  of  the  chairman  during  the 
remainder  of  the  debate,  and  may  be  used  thereafter  by  any  debater. 

TREPARATION  OF  THE  DEBATERS  AT  EACH  SCHOOL 

1.  Announce  the  contest  and  appoint  a  time  for  the  trials.  This 
time  should  be  from  seven  to  fourteen  days  after  the  announce- 
ment. 

2.  Post  the  conditions  for  the  trials : 


342  APPENDIX  I 

a.  Each  contestant  prepares  a  speech  not  to  exceed  six  minutes  in 
length,  on  either  side  of  the  proposition  to  be  used  in  the  debate. 

b.  The  teacher  will  prepare  from  five  to  ten  questions  or  statements, 
a  copy  of  which  will  be  handed  each  speaker  six  minutes  before  his 
speech  is  to  begin.  Two  of  these  questions  or  statements  must  be 
answered  or  refuted  by  the  speaker. 

c.  The  contestants  draw  lots  for  the  order  of  speaking,  and  each 
remains  outside  the  room  until  called  to  speak. 

d.  Three  teachers  act  as  judges.  They  should  have  before  them  the 
topics  for  refutation,  and  should  watch  for  the  answers.  The  four  best 
debaters  should  be  selected,  regardless  of  the  side  taken.  If  the  judges 
wish  it,  candidates  may  be  recalled  to  undergo  further  tests  or  questioning. 

e.  Places  on  the  two  debating  teams  are  assigned  by  the  debating 
teacher,  or  may  be  chosen  by  the  debaters,  beginning  with  the  speaker 
who  is  awarded  first  place  in  the  trials. 

3.  The  four  debaters  compare  notes,  prepare  briefs,  and  con- 
sult with  the  teacher  about  briefs,  division  of  points,  study,  practice, 
etc.  Debaters  must  expect  only  criticism  and  general  suggestions 
from  the  teachers ;  the  debate  is  between  students,  not  teachers. 
The  following  policies  for  teachers  are  worthy  of  consideration : 
Debaters  may  interview  teachers  or  other  persons  for  opinions  and 
arguments.  Teachers  may  suggest  sources,  and  may  give  debaters 
books  or  other  printed  matter  containing  material  on  the  question. 
Teachers  may  criticize  briefs  which  have  been  prepared  by  students, 
but  such  criticism  should  not  involve  the  teacher's  doing  work  for 
the  student.  No  teacher,  or  other  person,  should  write  or  make  an 
abstract  or  brief  of  any  argument  for  a  debater.  Short  written 
answers  to  specific  questions  may  be  obtained  from  authorities  who 
are  to  be  quoted  in  the  debate.  Teachers  may  argue  with  students, 
and  give  them  oral  arguments  to  refute.  Teachers  may  hear  prac- 
tice speeches,  and  criticize  the  work  of  the  debaters.  They  may 
work  with,  but  noty^r,  the  debaters  ;  no  teacher  should  in  any  way 
allow  himself  to  substitute  his  own  activity  for  that  of  his  students. 
In  order  that  the  debate  may  be  fair,  and  the  issues  squarely  met. 
and  that  all  tricks,  quibbling,  and  mere  cleverness  may  be  avoided, 


ARRANGING  AND  CONDUCTING  DEBATES    343 

the  teachers  in  the  two  schools,  in  case  any  doubt  arises  as  the 
study  proceeds,  should  correspond  in  regard  to  the  interpretation 
which  should  be  put  upon  the  proposition. 

IMMEDIATE  PREPARATION  FOR  EACH  DEBATE 

1.  Advertise  the  debate,  and  arrange  for  handling  the  audience. 

2.  Prepare  blanks  for  the  judges.  These  should  contain  the 
statement  of  the  proposition,  the  names  of  the  speakers  and  their 
order,  and  the  necessars^  directions  for  judging. 

3.  Arrange  for  music  after  the  debate,  if  desired. 

4.  Arrange  the  room  : 

a.  Tables  and  chairs  at  each  side  of  the  stage,  for  the  debaters. 

b.  Table  and  three  chairs  at  back  of  stage,  for  chairman  and  time- 
keepers. 

c.  Stand  or  small  table  at  front  of  stage,  for  speaker. 

d.  Water  for  the  debaters ;   paper  for  the  timekeepers. 

5.  Receive  visiting  debaters  and  judges.  Pay  each  judge's 
expenses ;  give  the  judges  their  blanks  and  sheets  of  blank  paper. 
Have  a  quiet  place  ready  for  visiting  debaters  if  they  wish  to 
consult.  Introduce  all  debaters  to  the  judges.  Show  the  judges 
to  their  seats. 

THE  DEBATE 

1.  The  chairman  announces  the  proposition,  the  schools,  the 
sides,  the  debaters'  names,  and  the  judges.  He  may  speak  of  the 
debate  which  is  going  on  at  the  other  school.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  chairman  to  keep  the  meeting  in  order,  to  introduce  the 
speakers,  and  to  aid  in  enforcing  the  rules  and  conditions  of  the 
debate.  If  a  debater  fails  to  observe  the  signal  of  the  timekeepers, 
the  chairman  should  use  the  gavel  until  he  stops.  I'he  chairman 
announces  the  decision  of  the  judges. 

2.  Any  debater  or  any  other  person  officially  connected  with 
either  school  may  "  rise  to  a  point  of  order  "  if  there  is  a  misst£u;;e- 
m'ent  of  the  proposition  or  a  gross  breach  of  the  rules. 


344  *  APPENDIX  I 

3.  Timekeepers  keep  time  for  every  speech.  They  should  keep 
independent  record  of  the  times,  and  these  records  should  be  so 
clearly  labeled  and  recorded  that  any  person  can  understand 
them.  To  avoid  any  mistake  they  should  compare  notes  as  the 
time  for  a  signal  approaches.  The  signals  for  each  team  may  be 
given  by  the  timekeeper  from  that  school  or  by  the  chairman.  In 
case  of  disagreement  the  matter  should  at  once  be  referred  to 
the  chairman  for  decision.  The  debaters  should  be  consulted  in 
reference  to  the  kind  of  signal  desired.  Generally  two  taps  given 
two  minutes  before  time  is  up  will  serve  as  a  warning,  and  three 
or  four  taps  will  signal  the  expiration  of  the  time  allotted.  The 
taps  should  be  loud  enough  so  that  they  cannot  possibly  be 
missed. 

4.  Judges  should  each  write  "  Affirmative  "  or  "  Negative  "  on 
a  slip  of  paper. 

5.  A  teacher  should  collect  the  ballots  of  the  judges,  open  them 
with  a  representative  of  the  other  school,  and  send  the  result  to 
the  chairman.  If  word  has  come  from  the  other  school,  that  too 
should  be  announced. 

2.  DEBATING  LEAGUES 

The  Advantages  to  be  Gained.  The  benefit  of  a  debating  league 
is  that  it  offers  a  regular  time  and  a  known  method  for  holding 
the  debates,  as  well  as  a  goal  for  consistent  effort  and  an  incentive 
for  careful  preparation.  The  league  debaters,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
students  interested  in  debating,  will  stand  at  the  top  of  the  ladder, 
and  if  they  are  patriotic,  will  help  many  others  to  climb  upward. 

The  championship  incentive  may  be  made  a  helpful  one,  though 
no  doubt  its  importance  will  dwindle  as  our  debating  comes  to 
have  a  better  basis.  If  the  winning  school  must  be  found,  how- 
ever, scoring  becomes  necessary,  and  winners  must  be  matched 
with  winners.  The  plans  outlined  below  will  serve  for  these  pur- 
poses, although  other  schemes  are  treated  in  section  4,  below. 


ARRANGING  AND  CONDUCTING  DEBATES    345 

Organization  and  Features  of  a  League.  Anybody  may  send  out 
letters  calling  a  meeting  of  representatives  of  schools  or  societies 
interested  in  forming  a  league.  Each  school  may  have  one  teacher 
and  one  student  representative.  A  meeting  may  be  held  soon 
after  school  begins,  to  arrange  the  first  series  of  debates,  and 
other  meetings  may  be  held  just  after  each  series,  and  an  annual 
meeting  a  few  weeks  before  the  close  of  the  year.  Three  series 
each  year  are  recommended.  The  by-laws  should  provide  for  annual 
dues,  duties  of  officers,  and  auditing,  and  may  deal  with  a  method 
of  securing  a  post-card  vote,  a  plan  for  paying  transportation  of 
delegates,  and  other  details  of  policy.  The  rules  of  debate  may 
or  may  not  be  a  part  of  the  by-laws ;  they  should  deal  with  the 
plans  for  arranging  and  conducting  the  debates. 

Below  are  given  some  further  suggestions  for  league  regula- 
tions :  Schools  matched  may  draw  lots  to  determine  which  school 
is  to  submit  propositions.  These  propositions  should  be  submitted 
within  one  week  from  the  meeting  at  which  the  schools  are  paired. 
Schools  which  are  very  small  may  be  permitted  to  use  the  debaters 
of  the  first  series  in  the  second  contests ;  medium-sized  schools 
may  be  allowed  to  use  only  two  of  the  four  debaters ;  while  large 
schools  should  use  no  debaters  of  the  first  debates  in  the  second 
series.  (The  figures  for  this  rule  may  be  taken  as  follows :  small, 
less  than  500  ;  medium,  500  to  1000  ;  large,  over  1000.)  In  case 
the  number  of  schools  in  the  league  is  an  odd  number,  the  last 
three  schools  may  conduct  a  triangular  debate.  The  rules  should 
provide  for  hearing  and  acting  on  protests.  Half  the  proceeds  of 
each  of  the  debates  of  the  championship  contest  should  go  to  the 
league  treasury.  If  it  is  feasible,  a  pamphlet  should  be  printed  each 
fall,  giving  the  constitution,  by-laws,  rules,  names  of  schools  belong- 
ing, names  of  delegates  and  officers,  and  a  report  of  the  league's 
activities  and  the  standing  of  the  schools  for  the  previous  year. 

Scoring.  Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  a  debating  league  of 
eleven  schools,  and  that  these  schools  are  matched  in  pairs  for 


346  APPENDIX  I 

simultaneous  debates,  except  that  three  of  them  will  hold  a  tri- 
angular debate  in  order  that  all  the  schools  may  be  included. 

The  debate  at  each  school  is  complete  in  itself,  without  refer- 
ence to  the  debate  at  any  other  school.  Each  of  the  three  judges 
marks  each  debater,  considering  all  his  speeches  throughout  the 
debate,  on  a  basis  of  loo  per  cent  —  75  per  cent  for  argument,  and 
25  per  cent  for  delivery  and  diction.  Each  judge  then  adds  the 
marks  of  the  two  debaters  on  each  side,  and  divides  between  the 
two  sides  a  total  of  five  points  for  teamwork,  making  any  division 
of  the  points  he  thinks  best;  as,  for  example,  four  points  to  one 
side  and  one  point  to  the  other.  He  then  adds  these  points  to  the 
previously  obtained  sums,  and  the  resulting  figures  stand  as  the 
final  marks  of  that  judge  for  the  two  schools.  He  may  finally  sub- 
tract the  smaller  score  from  the  larger,  and  fill  in  a  blank  stating : 

"  The  debate  is  awarded  to  the  side,   by  a  difference  of 

points." 

Teachers,  acting  as  tellers,  should  collect  the  reports  of  the 
judges  and  send  the  result  (the  number  of  decisions  for  each  side) 
to  the  chairman  of  the  meeting  to  be  announced. 

Various  methods  of  determining  the  standing  of  schools  in  a 
league  are  discussed  in  section  4,  below.  The  plan  here  proposed  is 
based  on  the  number  of  judges  who  award  the  debate  to  each  school. 
Let  us  tabulate  a  possible  outcome  of  a  debating  series,  based  on 
eleven  debates,  one  at  each  school,  all  occurring  at  the  same  time. 

In  the  tabulation  opposite  the  scores  are  obtained  as  follows : 
School  A  won  the  decisions  of  four  judges  in  all,  winning  one 
debate.  We  shall  therefore  credit  School  A  with  the  number  of 
judges'  decisions  won  in  its  two  debates,  plus  the  number  of 
debates  won.  Its  score  is  therefore  five  points.  School  B  has 
two  judges  and  one  debate ;  its  score  is  therefore  three  points. 
School  C  has  four  judges  and  two  debates ;  therefore  its  score  is 
six  points.  The  other  scores  are  easily  determined.  The  purpose  of 
arbitrarily  adding  one  point  for  each  debate  won  is  to  avoid  unfair 


ARRANGING  AND  CONDUCTING  DEBATES    347 

tie  scores ;  for  example,  schools  A  and  C  would  be  tied  in  the 
number  of  judges,  but  C  has  won  two  debates  to  but  one  by  A. 

In  case  any  judge  calls  a  debate  a  tie,  half  a  point  should  go  to 
each  school.  If  the  points  for  judges'  decisions  in  any  debate  are  tied 
(i^  for  each  school),  the  one  point  for  winning  the  debate  should 
likewise  be  divided,  making  the  score  two  points  for  either  school. 

In  case  a  debate  is  defaulted,  the  school  defaulting  receives  no 
points,  the  other  school  eight  points. 

A   PLAN   FOR   SCORING 
Number  of  Judges'  Decisions  won  by  Each  School 


At  School  A  —  A,  3 

udges. 

At  School  B  —  B,  2  judges. 

B,  0; 

udges. 

A,  I  judge. 

At  School  C— C,   2 

udges. 

At  School  D  —  D,  I  judge. 

D,  I. 

udge. 

C,   2  judges. 

At  School  E       E,  2  j 

udges. 

At  School  F —  F,    li  judges. 

F,   I  J 

udge. 

E,  4  judges. 

At  School  G  —  G,  3 

udges. 

At  School  H  —  H,  I  judge. 

H,  0  judges. 

G,  2  judges. 

At  I  —  I,  3  judges.           At  J  - 

—  J,  0  judges.           At  K —  K,  0  judges 

J,  0  judges. 

K,  3  judges.                          I,  3  judges. 

Scores 

Standing 

School  A  —  5  points. 

I.  School    I — 8  points. 

School  B  —  3  points. 

2.  School  G  —  7  points. 

School  C  —  6  points. 

3.  School  C  —  6  points. 

School  D  —  2  points. 

f  School  A  —  5  points. 
\  School  E  —  5  points. 

School  E  —  5  points. 

School  F  —  3  points. 

6.  School  K  —  4  points. 

School  G  —  7  points. 

^  J  School  F  —  3  points. 
\ School  _B  —  3  points. 

School  H  —  I  point. 

School    I  —  8  points. 

9.   School  D  —  2  points. 

School    J  —  0  points. 

10.  School  H  —  I  point. 

School  K  —  4  pc 

)ints. 

1 1 .  School    J  —  0  points. 

348  APPENDIX  I 

The  purpose  of  asking  each  judge  to  use  per  cents  in  his  rating 
of  the  speakers  is  that  this  method  gives  a  better  basis  for  detailed 
comparison  of  the  four  debaters.  The  judges  are  likely  to  do  more 
careful  work  than  if  they  are  required  merely  to  write  the  name  of 
the  winning  side  on  a  slip  of  paper.  Furthermore,  in  case  of  a  tie 
score,  it  is  a  satisfaction  to  examine  the  reports  to  ascertain  the 
margins  by  which  the  different  judges  decided.  But  the  fact  that 
one  judge  awards  the  debate  by  a  difference  of  twenty-five  points 
while  another  sets  the  difference  at  five  has  little  significance,  and 
should  not  be  used  in  determining  the  official  standings.  It  is 
almost  useless  to  compare  the  scores  of  two  judges,  because  of  the 
fact  that  there  is  no  lower  standard  from  which  to  proceed.  It  is 
impossible  to  say  what  kind  of  speech  is  worth  o  per  cent,  lo  per 
cent,  or  50  per  cent.  (It  is  difficult  enough  to  estimate  what  is 
worth  100  per  cent!)  As  a  consequence  of  this  difficulty,  one 
judge  will  separate  the  best  and  the  worst  speakers  by  forty 
points,  and  another  by  ten. 

Matching  the  Schools.  The  schools  in  the  league  may  be 
matched  by  lot  for  the  first  series  of  debates  each  year.  For 
the  second  series  those  schools  which  have  the  nearest  scores 
are  matched,  beginning  with  the  highest  two.  In  the  case  of  the 
eleven  schools  ranked  above,  schools  A  and  E  will  draw  lots,  one 
of  them  debating  with  C  and  the  other  with  K ;  and  schools  D,  H, 
and  J  may  hold  a  triangular  contest.  Matching  for  a  third  series 
is  accomplished  by  a  similar  plan,  the  scores  of  the  year  to  date 
being  added.  If  a  championship  debate  is  held,  the  highest  two 
(or  three)  schools  should  be  the  contestants. 

3.    DEBATING  WITHIN  THE  SCHOOL 

A  School  Debating  Society.  Every  school  should  have  a  debating 
society.  It  can  become  a  great  help  in  making  students  realize  the 
importance  and  value  of  debating,  and  its  members  can  constantly 
be  on  the  lookout  for  new  students  to  join  the  club.    If  it  seems 


ARRANGING  AND  CONDUCTING  DEBATES    349 

best,  active  membership  may  be  secured  by  participation  in  liie 
debating  activities  of  the  school.  The  society  may  vote  on  propo- 
sitions to  be  submitted  or  to  be  accepted,  select  the  judges  for  the 
trials,  select  the  student  delegate  to  the  debating  league,  appoint 
committees  of  arrangement  and  of  entertainment  for  the  debates, 
hold  social  meetings,  and  act  in  such  other  matters  as  shall  be 
acceptable  to  the  teacher  of  debating.  Its  president  acts  as  chair- 
man at  the  debates  at  the  home  school.  He  appoints  the  time- 
keepers, one  to  act  at  each  school.  The  secretary  may  help  with 
the  correspondence. 

Unless  the  w^ork  of  the  school  furnishes  enough  debating  activity 
for  all  the  members  of  the  society,  debates  should  be  arranged  to 
give  the  members  training  and  development.  For  this  purpose  a 
committee  may  be  given  power  to  arrange  so  that  every  member 
shall  take  part  in  at  least  one  debate  each  semester. 

An  Interclass  Tournament.  An  interclass  series  of  debates  may 
be  held  during  a  short  space  of  time  if  all  the  debates  are  on  the 
same  proposition.  The  proposition  should  be  carefully  selected ; 
it  should  be  one  of  great  interest,  and  if  possible,  one  of  large 
meaning,  so  that  the  hearers  of  the  last  debate  will  still  be  inter- 
ested in  the  subject. 

The  first  duty  is  to  select  four  representatives  from  each  class. 
Let  us  suppose  that  all  four  classes  are  to  compete.  Trials  may 
be  held  for  each  year  separately.  In  arranging  the  dates,  the 
lower  classes  may  be  given  the  benefit  of  coming  last,  so  that  they 
may  hear  the  talks  of  the  upper-class  students.  There  is  no  need 
of  excluding  from  the  room  where  a  trial  is  being  held  any  except 
those  students  who  are  yet  to  speak  at  that  particular  meeting. 

Let  us  consider  a  hypothetical  arrangement  for  the  trials.  Sup- 
pose the  tournament  and  the  proposition  are  announced  on  Mon- 
day, October  i.  The  senior  speeches  may  be  set  for  Monday, 
October  8,  after  school.  Each  senior  student  who  wishes  to  try 
may  prepare  a  four-minute   talk  on  either  side  of  the  question. 


350  APPENDIX  I 

Refutation  statements  may  be  required,  as  suggested  earlier.  The 
junior  trial  may  be  held  on  the  next  day,  Tuesday,  the  9th,  that 
for  the  sophomores  on  Wednesday,  and  that  for  the  freshmen  on 
Thursday.  Sides  are  arranged  as  explained  in  connection  with  the 
interschool  debate. 

The  first  debate  may  be  held  on  or  about  Monday,  October  29, 
between  the  senior  affirmative  team  and  the  junior  negative.  Se- 
lection of  judges  is  to  be  made  by  the  debaters  ;  the  scoring  should 
be  done  as  directed  above  under  the  heading,  Scoring;  and  the 
time  limit  for  the  speeches  should  be  determined  by  the  average 
ability  of  the  school's  speakers  and  the  amount  of  time  available. 
On  Tuesday,  the  30th,  may  be  held  the  debate  between  the  junior 
affirmative  team  and  the  senior  negative.  On  Thursday,  the  31st, 
the  sophomore  affirmative  team  meets  the  freshman  negative ;  and 
on  Friday,  November  i,  the  freshman  affirmative  team  meets  the 
sophomore  negative. 

The  four  preliminary  debates  have  now  been  provided  for,  and 
the  addition  of  the  scores  will  show  that  one  of  the  two  lower 
classes  has  won  over  the  other,  and  that  one  of  the  upper  classes 
has  likewise  won  over  the  opposing  class.  Tet  us  say  that  the  fresh- 
man and  junior  years  are  the  winners.  Next,  then,  two  final  debates 
must  be  held.  On  Tuesday,  November  5,  the  junior  affirmative 
team  may  debate  the  freshman  negative ;  and  on  Thursday,  the 
7th,  the  freshman  affirmative  team  may  meet  the  junior  negative. 
Perhaps  these  final  debates  may  be  held  before  the  whole  school, 
or  before  the  interested  classes.  The  winning  class  may  hold  an 
exhibition  debate,  its  affirmative  team  against  its  negative  team. 

If  there  are  three,  five,  six,  or  eight  classes  entered  in  the  tour- 
nament, instead  of  four,  it  will  be  necessary  merely  to  eliminate 
one  class  after  another  to  find  the  best  class. 

If  the  losing  teams  will  only  continue  their  interest,  they  can 
hold  some  excellent  debates  against  other  classes,  or  among  them- 
selves, and  so  obtain  a  large  amount  of  practice. 


ARRANGING  AND  CONDUCTING  DEBATES    351 

A  Class  in  Debating.  A  school  which  hopes  to  develop  good 
debaters  should  have  a  class  in  argumentation  meeting  three,  four, 
or  five  times  a  week,  for  at  least  a  semester.  Almost  any  school 
will  organize  such  a  class  if  enough  students  ask  for  it. 

During  half  or  two  thirds  of  the  course,  three  days  a  week  (per- 
haps Tuesdays,  Wednesdays,  and  Thursdays)  should  be  devoted  to 
study,  recitations,  and  explanations  on  the  principles  of  argument 
and  debating,  and  to  exercises  on  particular  phases  of  the  subject. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  term  these  three  days  may  be  used  in 
practicing  and  delivering  arguments  and  in  holding  debates. 

On  Fridays  the  class  may  hold  a  debate  on  a  proposition  previ- 
ously selected.  The  class  may  divide  into  two  sides,  and  the  debate 
may  be  conducted  according  to  the  plan  proposed  on  page  270. 
If  any  students  find  difficulty  in  deciding  which  side  of  the  proposi- 
tion to  uphold,  let  them  hear  the  first  few  talks  on  the  subject  be- 
fore deciding.  If  it  seems  desirable,  the  students  on  each  side  may 
choose  a  leader  to  determine  the  order  of  speaking.  The  teacher 
may  act  as  chairman,  and  may  note  down  on  slips  of  paper 
suggestions  for  improvement  to  give  to  individual  students.  The 
teacher  may  leave  till  Mondays  his  general  criticisms  of  the  debates. 

Mondays  may  be  used  in  holding  informal  discussions  on  topics 
of  current  interest.  The  subject  should  be  known  at  least  a  few 
days  ahead,  and  everybody  should  come  prepared  to  speak  on  it. 

If  a  second  semester  of  argumentation  is  given,  the  principles 
of  argumentation  may  be  reviewed  in  the  light  of  experience 
gained,  and  formal  discussions  and  debates  may  be  held. 

4.    OTHER  PLANS  FOR  DEBATING 

Following  the  order  of  topics  used  above,  we  shall  now  consider 
some  variations  in  the  arranging  and  conducting  of  debates. 

Triangular  Debate,  'i'hree  schools,  instead  of  two,  may  hold 
simultaneous  debates.  Each  school  keeps  its  affirmative  team  at 
home.    School  A  sends  its  negative  team  to  School  B ;  School  B's 


352  APPENDIX  I 

goes  to  School  C ;  and  School  C's  goes  to  School  A.  The  direc- 
tion of  traveling  of  the  negative  teams,  unless  there  is  a  different 
agreement,  may  be  from  left  to  right. 

The  proposition  may  be  selected  at  a  conference  of  representa- 
tives of  the  three  schools.  If  such  a  conference  is  impracticable, 
either  of  two  other  plans  may  be  used.  Schools  A  and  B  may 
each  send  a  proposition  to  School  C,  and  School  C  may  select 
one  of  them,  and  notify  the  other  tv^^o  schools.  Or  each  of  the 
three  schools  may  mail  to  the  other  two  schools  two  propositions ; 
and  each  school,  using  the  six  different  propositions  so  collected, 
may  vote  its  first,  second,  and  third  preferences,  and  send  this 
vote  to  the  other  schools.  Counting  five  points  for  a  first  choice 
by  any  school,  three  points  for  a  second  choice,  and  one  point  for 
a  third  choice,  the  proposition  receiving  the  highest  score  is  chosen 
for  the  triangular  debate. 

All  other  arrangements  may  be  the  same  as  those  outlined 
above  for  a  double  debate. 

Single  Debate.  The  proposition  for  a  single  debate  must  be 
selected  by  one  school  and  the  sides  chosen  by  the  other.  The 
proposition  must  be  so  evenly  balanced  that  neither  school  will  be 
at  a  disadvantage.  This  is  difficult  in  view  of  the  fact  that  events 
may  happen  to  upset  the  balance.  Arrangements,  scoring,  etc. 
may  be  the  same  as  for  a  simultaneous  debate. 

Sides  chosen  before  the  Audience.  The  two  schools  concerned 
may  agree  on  the  proposition,  and  all  debaters  prepare  to  speak 
on  either  side  of  the  question.  Ten  minutes  before  the  debate 
is  to  begin  (this  time  may  be  longer  if  desired),  lots  are  drawn  to 
determine  the  sides.  This  plan  may  be  used  for  a  simultaneous 
debate,  by  having  the  drawing  at  one  of  the  schools  and  telephon- 
ing the  result  to  the  other,  at  which  the  debate  is  conducted  with 
the  sides  of  the  two  schools  reversed. 

Proposition  selected  shortly  before  the  Debate.  The  general 
topic   of   the   debate,   such  as   Mexico,   Tariff,   Poverty,   etc.,   is 


ARRANGING  AND  CONDUCTING  DEBATES    353 

selected  from  sLx  to  ten  weeks  before  the  time  of  the  debate. 
Some  person  connected  with  neither  school  is  asked  to  formulate 
a  proposition,  and  to  send  it  in  one,  two,  or  three  sealed  enve- 
lopes, according  as  the  debate  is  single,  double,  or  triangular.  The 
envelope  is  opened  at  each  school  at  the  agreed  time,  all  debaters 
having  the  same  amount  of  time  to  prepare  outlines  and  otherwise 
make  ready  for  the  debate.  The  sides  may  be  drawn,  or  the  home 
teams  may  take  the  affirmative  if  the  debate  is  simultaneous. 

Three  Speakers  on  Each  Side.  The  strongest  debater  of  a  three- 
man  team  should  come  first  on  the  affirmative  side,  and  the  next 
best  last.  The  best  negative  should  be  last,  and  the  next  best  first. 
If  each  debater  appears  twice,  the  plan  may  be  as  follows.  The 
first  six  speeches  are  limited  to  ten  minutes  each.  After  the  third 
negative  speech  in  the  first  round  of  speeches,  the  rebuttal  speeches 
begin  with  the  first  negative,  followed  by  the  second  affirmative 
speaker,  then  the  others  in  this  order  —  second  negative,  third 
affirmative,  third  negative,  first  affirmative.  This  arrangement 
brings  two  negative  speeches  together,  but  it  brings  the  affirm- 
ative side  last,  and  it  cuts  down  the  whole  number  of  speeches 
from  thirteen  to  twelve.  The  rebuttal  speeches  may  be  limited 
to  five  minutes  each. 

No  Special  Rebuttal  Speeches.  The  first  speaker  may  be  given 
fifteen  minutes,  each  of  the  others  eighteen,  and  the  first  affirmative 
five  minutes  for  rebuttal. 

Time  Division  Optional.  Each  speaker  may  be  allowed  a  total 
of  eighteen  minutes  for  his  two  speeches.  Not  more  than  ten 
minutes  should  be  allowed  for  the  rebuttal  speech.  Regardless 
of  the  time  used  in  the  first  two  speeches,  the  first  affirmative 
should  be  allowed  four  minutes  for  final  rebuttal. 

No  Decision.  The  interesting  debates  held  in  classes,  in  which 
no  decisions  are  rendered,  show  that  judges  are  not  a  necessary 
part  of  the  equipment  of  a  debate.  The  best  of  debates  can  be 
held  without  any  decision,  the  debate  being  over  when  the  debaters 


354  APPENDIX  I 

have  finished.  If  it  is  desired,  persons  in  the  audience  may  be 
allowed  to  speak  on  the  question  after  the  debate  is  over,  or  to 
ask  questions  of  the  debaters. 

Trials  to  select  Debaters.  Ability  to  think  quickly  and  to  adapt 
the  argument  to  the  exigencies  of  the  occasion  may  be  developed 
by  requiring  the  candidates  for  the  debate  to  study  a  general 
topic,  and  by  giving  them  a  definite  proposition  just  before  their 
speeches.  This  proposition  should  be  closely  related  to  the  propo- 
sition for  the  debate.  Each  speaker  should  be  allowed  to  choose 
either  the  affirmative  or  the  negative  side.  Another  method  is 
to  put  the  candidates  into  actual  contests  on  the  subject  for  the 
debate.  In  groups  of  four,  they  may  be  required  to  carry  out 
complete  debates,  with  the  speeches  half  as  long  as  they  are  to 
be  in  the  interschool  debate. 

Other  Methods  of  Scoring.  Some  leagues  allow  60  per  cent  for 
argument,  and  40  per  cent  for  delivery  and  diction ;  others  make 
the  division  90  per  cent  and  10  per  cent.  Even  if  judges  are  told 
to  mark  on  argument  entirely,  fluent  speaking  would  make  the 
argument  seem  better.  It  is  difficult  to  separate  the  matter  from 
the  style.  Perhaps  the  only  good  way  is  for  each  judge  to  take 
notes  on  the  argument  of  each  side,  and  to  compare  these  notes 
before  making  his  decision. 

The  following  is  a  different  method  for  tallying  the  judges'  reports. 
Beginning  with  the  method  of  scoring  explained  above,  follow  that  plan 
through  the  rule  where  each  judge  adds  the  points  for  teamwork  and 
thus  obtains  the  final  marks  for  the  affirmative  and  for  the  negative. 
Let  the  teller  take  each  report  in  this  form.  He  then  compares  the 
four  marks  given  the  individual  speakers,  and  adds  enough  points  to 
the  highest  of  these  marks  to  make  the  record  of  that  debater  read 
100  per  cent.  The  marks  of  the  other  three  debaters  are  then  raised 
by  the  same  amount.  (This  raises  the  marks  given  by  the  three  judges 
to  a  common  standard.)  The  teller  next  adds  these  revised  marks  on 
each  judge's  report  for  the  affirmative  and  for  the  negative,  and  adds 
the  credits  for  teamwork  as  indicated  by  the  judge.  Next  these  scores 
given  by  the  three  judges  are  added  together  for  the  affirmative  and 


ARRANGING  AND  CONDUCTING  DEBATES    355 

for  the  negative.  Each  score  is  now  divided  by  three,  to  obtain  the 
average.  This  may  stand  as  the  final  score  of  the  debate.  In  case  the 
marks  of  one  judge  outweigh  those  of  the  other  two,  enough  points 
should  be  added  to  the  score  of  the  side  winning  the  decision  of  two 
judges  to  cause  that  side  to  win  by  one  point. 

Sometimes  ten  points  are  added  to  the  side  winning  the  decision 
of  two  judges ;  this  insures  matching  of  winning  teams  for  the  next 
series  of  debates.  In  case  of  defaults  the  scores  may  be  awarded  by 
a  system  of  averages.  Some  leagues  disregard  the  report  of  a  judge 
whose  marks  outweigh  those  of  the  other  two  judges,  and  make  up 
the  final  scores  from  the  reports  of  the  two  "  good  "  judges. 

The  Debating  League  of  California  .has  a  plan  of  scoring  which 
avoids  marking  individual  debaters.  The  judges  are  each  instructed 
to  distribute  between  the  two  teams  sixty  points  on  argument,  twenty 
points  on  delivery,  ten  points  on  teamwork,  and  ten  points  on  composi- 
tion. The  tellers  add  together  the  points  given  to  the  affirmative  and 
negative  respectively,  and  divide  by  three.  A  judge's  report  which 
outbalances  the  other  two  reports  is  thrown  out.  Five  points  are  added 
to  the  score  of  the  winning  team. 

In  all  the  cases  considered  above  the  standings  of  the  two 
schools  for  both  of  the  simultaneous  debates  are  obtained  by 
adding  the  scores  of  the  two  teams  belonging  to  each  school. 

Selecting  Judges  by  Lot.  The  league  members  from  each 
school  may  bring  to  the  meeting  before  a  debating  series  the 
names  of  five  persons  who  are  willing  to  serve  as  judges.  All 
the  names  are  put  on  slips  and  drawn  by  lot,  five  names  by  each 
school.  If  a  school  draws  a  name  it  proposed,  that  name  is  put 
back,  as  are  those  of  persons  who  for  any  reason  are  not  satis- 
factory to  either  of  the  two  schools  concerned.  Objection  may  be 
raised  on  the  ground  of  residence  near  one  school,  or  of  connec- 
tion with  one  of  the  schools  in  a  way  which  might  influence  the 
judge.  The  first  three  persons  whose  names  are  so  drawn  and 
approved  shall  be  asked  to  serve  as  judges  at  the  school  by  which 
the  names  are  drawn,  and  the  other  two  shall  be  asked  in  case 
of  refusals. 


356  APPENDIX  I 

The  Same  Resolution  for  all  the  Schools.  A  system  of  prefer- 
ential voting,  as  explained  above  under  Triangular  Debate,  may 
be  used  to  select  a  proposition  for  all  the  schools  of  the  league. 

The  Same  Proposition  for  Successive  Debates.  If  a  league  is 
composed  of  several  schools  situated  near  each  other,  a  tourna- 
ment may  be  held  on  the  same  question.  Simultaneous  debates 
in  eight  schools,  for  example,  may  be  held  on  one  Friday ;  on 
the  following  Friday  the  four  winning  schools  may  hold  debates  ; 
and  on  the  third  Friday  final  simultaneous  debates  may  be  held. 
The  matching  may  be  made  by  lot,  and  the  propositions  selected 
by  preferential  vote. 

Individual  Competitions.  A  debate  is  sometimes  held  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  finding  the  best  speaker.  The  places  may  be 
assigned  by  lot.  Each  speaker  should  appear  twice.  Each  judge 
should  mark  his  first,  second,  and  third  choices,  and  the  five-, 
three-,  and  one-point  system  may  be  used. 

No  Special  Help  by  Teachers.  The  Debating  League  of  Cali- 
fornia has  a  plan  by  which  all  the  propositions  to  be  used  in  each 
series  of  debates  are  selected  some  time  ahead,  and  from  this  list 
a  committee  assigns  the  resolutions  by  lot  to  the  various  pairs  of 
schools.  This  assignment  is  made  not  more  than  six  weeks  before 
the  date  of  the  series.  The  principals  exchange  the  following 
statement :  "  After  the  schools  were  paired  the  contestants  re- 
ceived no  assistance  in  organization,  correction  of  manuscript,  or 
rehearsal  from  any  paid  coach,  the  faculty,  or  any  member  thereof." 
It  is  understood  that  this  statement  is  not  to  prevent  the  holding 
of  a  practice  debate  not  more  than  five  days  prior  to  the  contest 
in  the  presence  of  the  students  and  faculty  of  their  own  school, 
on  which  debate  public  criticism  may  be  offered. 


APPENDIX   II 

PROPOSITIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Many  of  the  resolutions  in  this  list  will  be  found  suitable  for 
debate  at  almost  any  time  and  place.  Many  others  will  need 
rewording.  A  few  will  soon  be  out  of  date ;  a  few  others  are 
ahead  of  their  time.  Some  are  debatable  propositions  in  one 
section  of  the  country,  but  are  one-sided  in  other  sections.  The 
"  Recall  of  Judges,"  as  a  debatable  question,  traveled  from  West 
to  East ;  it  is  now  hardly  debatable  in  the  West,  and  may  before 
long  cease  to  be  debatable  anywhere. 

Some  such  propositions  as  the  building  of  a  new  schoolhouse 
and  public  purchase  of  street-car  lines  may  seem  to  be  easier  for 
the  affirmative  than  for  the  negative  until  it  is  seen  that  the 
financial  argument  favors  the  negative. 

Almost  any  topic  may  be  narrowed  if  desired  ;  for  example, 
"  The  private  ownership  of  the  street-car  lines  is  detrimental  to 
the  interests  of  the  people  of  this  city." 

To  test  whether  or  not  any  given  proposition  is  really  debatable, 
try  to  find  the  issues  involved  in  the  proposition  and  see  if  they 
are  evenly  balanced. 

The  propositions  are  divided  into  the  following  groups : 
A.  Educational;  B.  National  affairs;  C.  Local  interests;  D.  Civics, 
economics,  and  sociology ;  E.  Science;  F.  Athletics;  G.  Humorous; 
H.  Miscellaneous. 

A.  EDUCATIONAL 

1.  Algebra  should  be  taught  in  the  grammar  school. 

2.  English  grammar  should  be  required  in  the  high  school. 

3.  Arithmetic  should  be  required  of  all  high-school  pupils. 

357 


358  APPENDIX  II 

4.  Studies  in  secondary  schools  should  be  completely  elective. 

5.  The  principles  and  progress  of  international  brotherhood  should 
be  taught  in  all  schools. 

6.  Esperanto  should  be  taught  in  the  public  schools. 

7.  Public  schools  should  teach  trades. 

8.  Economics  should  be  taught  in  the  high  schools. 

9.  Lessons  in  the  fundamental  principles  of  economics  should  be 
given  in  the  grammar  school. 

10.  The   vaccination    of    pupils   in   the   public   schools   should   be 
compulsory. 

11.  The  honor  system   of   conducting  examinations  is  practicable 
only  in  small  schools. 

12.  The  training  of  American  boys  in  military  tactics  is  against  the 
best  interests  of  the  nation. 

13.  Self-government  in school  is  a  success. 

14.  Coeducation  in  the  ■ grades  should  be  abolished. 

15.  The  giving  of  prizes  for  scholarship  promotes  the  best  interests 
of  the  students. 

16.  Home  study  should  be  required  of  pupils  in  the grade. 

17.  A  college  education  is  of  greater  advantage  to  a  business  man 
than  the  same  amount  of  time  spent  in  business  experience. 

18.  A  state  university  should  be  established  in  this  part  of  the  state. 

19.  The  commercial  course  of school  should  be  four  years  in 

length. 

20.  school  should  have  a  swimming  tank. 

21. school  should  have  a  printing  press. 

22.  Printing  should  be  taught  in  the  high  schools. 

23.  Tennis  courts  should  be  provided  by  the  Board  of  Education. 

24.  Athletic  materials  should  be  paid  for  by  pupils  using  them. 

25.  High-school  pupils  should  be  furnished  with  free  textbooks. 
.  26.  Lunch  rooms  should  be  provided  for  schools. 

27.  Athletics  are  beneficial  to  a  school's  scholarship. 

28.  The  Boy  Scout  movement  should  be  managed  by  the  schools. 

29.  Physiology,  with  special  attention  to  the  effects  of  intoxicants 
and  narcotics  on  the  system,  should  be  taught  in  all  the  schools. 

30.  Military  drill  should  be  a  part  of  every  high-school  course. 

31.  School  savings  banks  should  be  established. 

32.  Dances  on  school  premises  should  be  prohibited. 


PROPOSITIONS  FOR  DEBATE  359 

33.  A  broad  course  of  study  in  the  high  school  is  preferable  to 
vocational  training. 

34.  Colleges  should  offer  courses  to  fit  men  and  women  for  public 
positions. 

35.  Vacation  schools  should  be  established. 

36.  Gymnasium  work  should  be  required  of  all  students. 

37.  This  school  should  have  a  band. 

38.  French  [German,  Italian,  Spanish]  is  the  most  useful  foreign 
language. 

39.  The  study  of  Greek  in  the  high  school  should  be  discontinued. 

40.  Student  self-government  is  a  better  means  by  which  to  prepare 
pupils  for  citizenship  than  are  the  studies  of  history  and  civics. 

41.  Shakespeare's  "  Merchant  of  Venice  "  condemns  the  Christians 
more  than  it  does  the  Jews. 

42.  Pupils  who  steal  in  school  should  be  dealt  with  by  the  citj 
authorities. 

43.  Final  examinations  should  be  abolished. 

44.  Music  lessons  are  as  important  as  school  studies. 

45.  The  study  of  algebra  is  a  waste  of  time  for  most  girls. 

46.  A  training  in  blind  obedience  is  beneficial. 

47.  Schoolhouses  in  the  city  of  should  be  built  of  fireproof 

materials. 

48.  Secret  societies  in  high  schools  should  be  prohibited. 

49.  Small  high  schools  are  preferable  to  large  schools. 

50.  Small  colleges  are  preferable  to  large  colleges. 

51.  The  work  of  students  on  the  school  paper  should  count  toward 
their  graduation. 

52.  The  lists  of  the  Simplified  Spelling  Board  should  be  generally 
adopted  in  the  United  States. 

63.  Married  women  should  be  allowed  to  teach  in  the  public  schools. 

54.  Secret  societies  in  the  high  school  should  be  regulated  rather, 
than  prohibited. 

55.  One  large  building  for  a  high  school  is  preferable  to  several 
smaller  ones. 

56.  Jim  Hawkins,  in  "  Treasure  Island,"  was  foolhardy  rather  than 
brave. 

(Write  propositions  based  on  other  books.) 


36o  APPENDIX  II 

B.  NATIONAL  AFFAIRS 

1.  The  United  States  is  justified  in  excluding  Chinese  laborers. 

2.  The  United  States  government  should  own  and  operate  all  rail- 
roads doing  an  interstate  business. 

3.  The  United  States  government  should  own  the  telegraph  lines 
within  its  boundaries. 

4.  The  United  States  should  gradually  abandon  the  protective  tariff. 

5.  Trade  between  the  United  States  and  Canada  should  be  free. 

6.  Raw  materials  should  be  on  the  free  list. 

7.  Sugar  imported  into  the  United  States  should  be  on  the  free  list. 

8.  A  high  protective  tariff  helps  to  keep  wages  high. 

9.  The  Philippine  Islands  should  be  given  their  independence  within 
ten  years. 

10.  Postage  on  letters  should  be  reduced  to  one  cent. 

11.  The  president  should  be  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years,  and 
should  not  be  eligible  for  reelection. 

12.  The  national  government  should  force  the  Southern  states  to 
allow  the  negro  to  vote. 

13.  Woman  suffrage  should  be  adopted  by  an  amendment  to  the 
federal  constitution. 

14.  The  president  should  be  elected  by  direct  popular  vote. 

15.  The  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  should  be  subject  to  the  recall. 

16.  To  own  territory  in  the  tropics  is  disadvantageous  to  the  United 
States. 

17.  The  system  of  pensions  fostered  by  the  Republican  party  is  wise 
and  just. 

18.  The    Democratic   party  is  more  worthy  of   support  than  the 
Republican  party. 

19.  The  interests  of  laboring  classes  require  their  allegiance  to  one 
national  party. 

20.  The  present   policy  of  the  government  toward  the  American 
Indians  is  justifiable. 

21 .  The  old  battleships  should  be  used  for  fortifications. 

22.  The  Pacific  coast  should  be  better  protected  against  attack. 

23.  The  Panama  Canal  should  be  more  strongly  fortified. 

24.  It  is  for  the  best  interests  of  the  United  States  to  maintain  a 
large  navy  [army]. 


PROPOSITIONS "^FOR  DEBATE  361 

25.  The  United  States  should  maintain  fewer  navy  yards  than  at 
the  present  time. 

26.  The  Progressives  were  justified  in  forming  a  new  political  party. 

27.  An  easier  method  of  amending  the  United  States  Constitution 
should  be  adopted. 

28.  Cuba  should  be  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

29.  The  United  States  should  establish  an  old-age  pension  system. 

30.  The  white  citizens  of  the  Southern  states  are  justified  in  passing 
laws  to  maintain  control  of  state  governments. 

31.  Corporations  should  not  be  allowed  to  contribute  to  campaign 
funds. 

32.  The  United  States  acted  with  justice  in  acquiring  the  canal  zone. 

C.  LOCAL  INTERESTS 

1.  The  city  should  erect  a  new  library  building  [city  hall,  fire  house, 
schoolhouse,  public  baths,  bridge,  jail,  power  plant]. 

2.  The  land  at  the  comer  of and streets  should  be  used 

for  a  new  playground  [park]. 

3.  The  city  should  have  a  union  station. 

4.  The  river  should  be  improved  by . 

5.  The  railway  should  be  compelled  to  erect  a  new 

station. 

6.  The railway  should  be  compelled  to  pave  its  right  of  way. 

7.  Theaters  in  the  city  should  be  closed  on  Sunday. 

8.  Billboards  should  be  abolished. 

9.  The  city  speed  limit  should  be  fixed  at  ten  [fifteen]  miles  an  hour. 

10.  No  automobiles  should  be  allowed  to  stand  on  the  main  streets 
(name  them)  more  than  half  an  hour  at  a  time. 

11.  Vehicles  should  be  required  to  pass  the  center  of  the  cross  street 
before  making  a  turn  to  the  left. 

12.  Owners  of  vacant  lots  should  be  required  to  keep  them  clear 
of  weeds. 

13.  The  height  of  buildings  for  this  city  should  be  fixed  at  200  feet. 

14.  Five-cent  theaters  should  be  closed. 

15.  Saloons  should  be  closed  on  Sundays. 

16.  City  firemen  should  not  be  on  duty  more  than  twelve  hours  per 
day. 

17.  City  employees  should  have  a  weekly  half-holiday. 


362  APPENDIX  II 

18.  Bonds  for  city  improvements  should  be  written  in  small  denomi- 
nations and  sold  directly  to  the  public. 

19.  The  city  streets  should  be  sprinkled  every  other  day. 

20.  Smoking  on  street  cars  should  be  prohibited. 

21.  All  trolley  wires  should  be  put  underground. 

22.  Laws  should  be  made  to  suppress  unnecessary  noises. 

23.  This  city  should  provide  better  fire  protection.   (For  example?) 

24.  Garbage  should  be  collected  more  often.    (How  often  ?) 

25.  Laws  should  be  passed  to  abate  the  smoke  nuisance. 

26.  Citizens  should  not  be  allowed  to  keep  pigs  inside  the  city  limits. 

27.  Laws  restricting  the  keeping  of  chickens  [horses,  cows,  pigeons, 
dogs,  etc.]  should  be  passed. 

28.  No  billiard  halls  should  be  allowed  in  this  city. 

29.  The  number  of  policemen  should  be  increased.   (By  how  many  ?) 

30.  Slaughterhouses  should  not  be  allowed  inside  the  city  limits. 

31.  All  brickyards  should  be  removed  from  the  city. 

32.  Buildings  should  be  forced  to  provide  more  fire  escapes  than 
are  at  present  required. 

33.  street  should  be  paved. 

34.  Improving  streets  by  means  of  oil  and  rock  is  the  best  method. 

35.  The  city  should  adopt  motor-driven  fire  apparatus. 

36.  The  electricity  [gas,  water]  generated  by  the  city's  plant  should 
be  sold  to  surrounding  towns. 

37.  The  present  rate  for  electricity  [gas,  water,  street-car  fare]  should 
be  lowered. 

38.  Bonds  should  be  voted  by  the  state  for  the  construction  of  an 
extensive  system  of  good  roads. 

39.  The  city  should  annex  the  town  of . 

40.  Baseball  should  be  prohibited  [allowed]  on  Sunday  in  the  play- 
grounds of  the  city. 

41.  The  Board  of  Education  should  have  offices  in  the  city  hall. 

42.  The  city  should  build  and  maintain  a  public  swimming  place 
[theater,  dance  hall]. 

43.  The  city  should  maintain  public  markets  [ice  plant,  laundry]. 

44.  The  city  should  buy  out  the  gas  [water,  electric,  street-railway] 
company. 

45.  The  city  should  own  and  operate  a  municipal    ferry  [docks, 
warehouses]. 


PROPOSITIONS  FOR  DEBATE  363 

46.  The  city  should  build  a  paved  boulevard  along  the  harbor  [river, 
lake]  front. 

47.  The  city  should  build  a  subway  [elevated  railway]. 

48.  A   canal    should    be    built    from    the    river    [lake,    harbor]    to 
street. 

49.  The  pay-as-you-leave  street  cars  should  be  adopted. 

50.  The   street-car   companies  should    be   required    to   give   every 
passenger  a  seat. 

51.  Street-car  fares  should  be  reduced  to  three  cents  [three  cents  for 
those  required  to  stand]. 

52.  Street-car  companies  should  not  be  allowed  to  have  the  terminus 
of  any  route  in  the  business  district. 

53.  More  cars  should  be  placed  on  the line. 

54.  The  street-railway  company  should  extend  the  time  [age]  limit 
on  all  car  books  for  students. 

55.  A  cross-town  street-car  line  should  be  built. 

56.  The  city  should  receive  a  percentage  of  the  profits  of  the  street- 
railway  [gas,  water,  electric,  etc.]  company. 

57.  A  curfew  ordinance  should  be  passed. 

58.  The  city  should  build  and  rent  model  tenements. 

59.  Boxing  contests  should  be  prohibited. 

60.  All  franchises  for  public  utilities  should  be  limited  to  21  years. 

61.  The  indeterminate  franchise  plan  should  be  adopted  by  the  city. 

62.  This  city  should  be  fortified. 

63.  The  street-car  fare  to should  be  reduced. 

64.  The  rotary  system  of  street  traffic  should  be  adopted  at  the 
corner  of  . 

65.  The  city  should  establish  a  municipal  newspaper. 

66.  Jitney  lines  are  a  benefit  to  the  city. 

D.   CIVICS,  ECONOMICS,  SOCIOLOGY 

1.  Labor  organizations  promote  the  best  interests  of  the  workingman. 

2.  Labor  organizations  are  a  menace  to  industrial  peace. 

3.  Government  employees  should  be  allowed  to  organize  and  strike. 

4.  Strikes  are  a  benefit  to  the  workingman. 

5.  A  state  board  should  be  created  to  arbitrate  labor  disputes. 

6.  The  city  government  should  provide  work  for  the  unemployed. 


364  APPENDIX  II 

7.  The  English  system  of  government  is  more  democratic  than  the 
American  system. 

8.  Postmasters  should  be  elected  by  the  people. 

9.  A  small  property  qualification  for  the  exercise  of  suffrage  would 
be  desirable. 

10.  States  should  provide  a  penalty  for  persons  who  continually  fail 
to  vote. 

11.  Organized  labor  should  take  no  part  in  politics. 

12.  Capital  punishment  should  be  abolished  in  this  state. 

13.  The  open  shop  is  more  desirable  than  the  closed  shop. 

14.  The  poll  tax  should  be  abolished. 

15.  The  right  of  suffrage  should  be  granted  only  after  an  educational 
test. 

16.  The  federal  government  should  regulate  marriage  and  divorce. 

17.  Organized   labor  should    form   a   political   party   for    municipal 
elections. 

18.  Nomination  by  petition  has  been  a  success  in  state  [city]  elections. 

19.  Provision  should  be  made  for  voting  by  mail. 

20.  All  lobbyists  at  the  state  legislature  should  be  required  to  regis- 
ter their  purpose  and  source  of  support. 

21.  Socialism  offers  the  only  practicable  solution  of  our  economic 
difficulties. 

22.  Newspapers  should  not  be  allowed  to  print  details  of  crime. 

23.  A  representative  should  vote  as  his  conscience  dictates,  rather 
than  as  his  constituents  desire. 

24.  The  commission  form  of  government  is  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  smaller  American  cities. 

25.  War  has  caused  more  harm  to  the  world  than  drink.  • 

26.  High  license  is  preferable  to  prohibition  as  a  means  of  control- 
ling the  liquor  traffic. 

27.  The  eight-hour  working  day  should  be  adopted  throughout  the 
United  States. 

28.  The  principle  of  excess  condemnation  should  be  adopted  by  the 
state. 

29.  Proportional  representation  should  be  adopted  by  American  cities. 

30.  Preferential  voting  is  better  than  the  double-election  system. 

31.  A  higher  rate  of  taxation  should  be  put  on  land  than  on  other 
property. 


PROPOSITIONS  FOR  DEBATE  365 

32.  Church  property  should  be  exempt  from  taxation. 

33.  The  amount  of  property  that  may  be  inherited  should  be  limited 
by  law. 

34.  Pensions  for  mothers  should  be  adopted  by  the  state  legislature. 

35.  Drink  is  the  cause  of  poverty. 

36.  Poverty  is  the  cause  of  drink. 

37.  The  fundamental  interests  of  capital  and  of  labor  are  the  same. 

38.  The  publicity  of  the  juvenile  court  destroys  its  good  effect. 

39.  The  city-manager  plan  is  preferable  to  the  commission  form  of 
government. 

40.  The  purpose  of  prisons  is  best  served  by  making  the  inmates 
comfortable  rather  than  uncomfortable. 

41.  This  city  should  have  the  right  to  use  vacant  lots  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  work  to  the  unemployed. 

42.  The  laboring  class  would  gain  more  by  united  industrial  action 
than  by  united  political  action. 

43.  The  organization  known  as  the  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World 
is  a  benefit  to  American  workingmen. 

44.  The  right  to  vote  is  of  more  value  to  the  American  workingman 

than  the  right  to  strike. 

E.    SCIENCE 

1.  Polar  expeditions  are  a  useless  waste  of  lives  and  money. 

2.  The  United  States  government  should  adopt  the  metric  system. 

3.  The  use  of  tobacco  by  minors  should  be  prohibited  by  law. 

4.  The   government   is   justified    in    restricting   amateur    wireless 
operators. 

5.  The  dirigible  is  more  practicable  than  the  aeroplane. 

6.  All  cities  should  be  required  to  dispose  of  their  sewage  within 
their  own  city  limits. 

7.  A  vegetarian  diet  is  better  than  one  containing  meat. 

8.  Mars  is  inhabited. 

9.  Niagara  Falls  should  be  used  for  commercial  purposes. 

10.  The  locomotive  with  the  cab  in  the  front  is   better  than  the 
present  pattern. 

11.  The  monorail  system  is  practicable. 

12.  Cooking  by  electricity  is  preferable  to  cooking  by  gas. 

13.  Oleomargarine  is  a  good  substitute  for  butter. 

14.  American  railways  should  be  operated  by  electricity. 


366  APPENDIX  II 

F.   ATHLETICS 

1.  Interscholastic  athletics  promote  the  best  interests  of  schools. 

2.  Playing  for  money  should  debar  an  athlete  from  school  games. 

3.  Rugby  football  is  a  better  game  than  American  intercollegiate 
football. 

4.  Boxing  should  be  introduced  as  a  high-school  sport. 

5.  College  football  is  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  the  insti- 
tution. 

6.  The  competition  afforded  in  athletic  contests  is  a  good  prepara- 
tion for  life. 

7.  Adequate  facilities  for  the  teaching  of  athletics  in  high  schools 
should  be  provided  by  public  funds. 

8.  Field  events  are  better  for  the  contestants  than  races. 

9.  The  hammer  throw  should  be  abolished. 

10.  The  mental  training  furnished  by  baseball  is  superior  to  that 
given  by  any  of  the  regular  studies. 

11.  The  two-mile  race  should  have  no  place  in  high-school  athletics. 

12.  The  high  jump  is  the  most  scientific  of  the  field  events. 

G.  HUMOROUS 

1.  The  pin  is  more  useful  than  the  match. 

2.  The  horse  is  of  more  benefit  to  humanity  than  the  cow. 

3.  The  earth  is  flat. 

4.  Tipping  should  be  abolished. 

5.  All  squashes  growing  on  a  vine  belong  to  the  owner  of  the  vine, 
even  if  parts  of  the  vine  grow  through  a  fence  onto  a  neighbor's  land. 

6.  Success  in  life  is  measured  by  financial  standing. 

7.  The  moon  is  made  of  green  cheese. 

8.  Buttermilk  rather  than  grape  juice  should  be  adopted  as  the 
national  drink. 

9.  An  irresistible  force  would  be  stopped  by  an  immovable  body. 

10.  The  world  is  getting  laetter. 

11.  School  pupils  should  be  required  to  wear  uniforms. 

12.  The  city  should  be  torn  down  and  rebuilt. 

13.  Bricks  are  more  useful  than  nails. 

14.  A  perpetual-motion  machine  is  a  scientific  reality. 

15.  Housewives  should  be  limited  to  an  eight-hour  day. 


PROPOSITIONS  FOR  DEBATE  367 

16.  The    discovery    of    the    peanut   has   been    more    beneficial    to 
humanity  than  the  discovery  of  America. 

17.  Pawnbrokers  should  be  abolished. 

18.  Mistakes    in     spelling     should     be    punishable    by     fine    and 
imprisonment. 

19.  The  potato  is  more  ornamental  than  the  tomato. 

20.  A  has-been  is  more  useful  to  society  than  a  never-will-be. 

21.  The  necktie  is  a  useless  ornament. 

22.  Brutus  was  justified  in  killing  Caesar. 

23.  The  ladybug  is  more  useful  than  the  spider. 

24.  The  seniors  of  the  school  should  control  the  other  classes. 

25.  Newsboys  should  be  granted  pensions. 

26.  It  takes  more  braver)'  to  be  bad  than  to  be  good. 

27.  Practical  ideals  are  better  than  daydreams. 

28.  Christmas  giving  should  be  discouraged. 

29.  The  United  States  should  annex  Europe. 

H.  MISCELLANEOUS 

1.  The  Russian  revolutionists  are  entitled  to  the  help  of  Americans. 

2.  The ■  automobile  is  the  best  for  the  price. 

3.  The  aeroplane  is  more  important  in  war  than  the  submarine. 

4.  A  boulevard  should  be  built  from  this  city  to . 

5.  Country  boys  should  stay  in  the  country. 

6.  Stone  curbs  are  better  than  those  of  cement. 

7.  Raffles  should  be  prohibited  by  law. 

8.  The  use  of  dice  should  be  prohibited. 

9.  Courtesy  is  necessary  for  success  in  business. 

10.  Preparation  for  war  is  a  guaranty  of  peace. 

11.  Julius  Caesar  was  one  of  Rome's  greatest  men. 

12.  The  location  of  the  city  of is  a  favorable  one. 

13.  The  Athenians  were  justified  in  putting  Socrates  to  death. 

14.  The  use  of  cards  leads  to  gambling. 

15.  The  United  States  should  dominate  the  Pacific. 

16.  Internal  enemies  are  more   dangerous  to  the  welfare  of   our 
country  than  external  enemies. 

17.  The  United  States  will  in  time  control  all  of  North  America. 

18.  The  harbors  of  the  state  should  be  under  state  control. 


368  APPENDIX  II 

19.  The  use  of  fireworks  should  be  prohibited. 

20.  American  newspapers  are  unreliable. 

21.  Loyalty  to  one's  friends  is  of  greater  importance  than  loyalty 
to  one's  school. 

22.  Loyalty  to  one's  country  is  of  greater  importance  than  loyalty 
to  humanity  at  large. 

23.  Hard    work    is    necessary    for    the    proper    development    of 
character. 


APPENDIX  III 

PLAN  FOR  A  MOCK  TRIAL 

Court  procedure  should  not  be  followed  too  closely.  The  direc- 
tions given  here  apply  to  criminal  cases ;  if  a  civil  case  is  chosen, 
change  "  district  attorney  "  to  "  attorney  for  the  plaintiff,"  and  let 
one  of  the  witnesses  be  the  plaintiff."  Avoid  murder  trials,  divorce 
suits,  etc.,  as  being  too  serious  to  mock.  A  humorous  charge  is 
better.  Since  the  testimony  in  a  mock  trial  is  often  invented,  it  is 
better  to  alternate  the  witnesses,  one  for  the  prosecution  and  then 
one  for  the  defense.  If  the  defense  begins  after  the  prosecution 
has  finished,  it  is  too  easy  for  the  defense  to  win.  If  the  trial  can 
be  finished  at  one  sitting,  or  if  it  is  based  on  a  real  event,  the  usual 
order  may  be  followed.  The  total  time  needed  for  a  simple  mock 
trial  is  from  two  to  five  hours.  It  may  be  shortened  by  leaving 
out  some  of  the  steps. 

CHOICE  OF  OFFICERS 

A  district  attorney  and  a  defendant  must  be  chosen  by  the  class,  but 
the  latter  chooses  his  own  attorney.  Each  attorney  selects  an  assistant, 
or  counselor.  The  class  elects  the  judge,  a  clerk,  and  if  desired,  a 
bailiff. 

PRELIMINARY  PLANS 

1 .  Charge  and  Answer.  The  district  attorney  writes  the  charge  and 
gives  it  to  the  clerk.  The  attorney  for  the  defense  then  prepares 
and  gives  to  the  clerk  an  answer  to  the  charge.    See  examples  below. 

2.  Witnesses.  The  lawyers  may  select  witnesses,  four  or  five  for 
each  side,  choosing  alternately.    Lawyers  of  each  side  then  meet  with 

369 


370  APPENDIX  III 

their  respective  witnesses,  and  discuss  with  them  the  parts  they  are  to 
take  and  the  testimony  they  are  to  offer.^ 

3.  Jury.  The  judge  may  decide  the  case  if  the  lawyers  agree  to  have 
it  so,  or  the  lawyers  or  judge  may  select  any  convenient  number  of 
persons  for  a  jury.  Or,  if  time  permits,  a  jury  may  be  chosen  by  panel 
and  examinations. 

4.  Lawyers  and  Judge.  The  teacher  may  instruct  the  lawyers  how 
to  ask  questions,  and  the  judge  how  to  rule  on  objections.  Two  classes 
of  questions  are  barred :  those  having  nothing  to  do  with  the  case,  and 
those  which  lead  to  an  answer  obviously  suggested  by  the  question. 
Hearsay  evidence  is  not  admitted.  A  lav\7er  may  rise  and  object  to  the 
question  of  an  opposing  lawyer,  and  the  judge  sustains  or  overrules  the 
objection.  The  judge  may  hear  reasons  for  and  against  the  question 
before  he  decides. 

5.  Arrangement.  The  judge  sits  at  a  desk  in  front,  facing  the  audi- 
ence, the  lawyers  are  at  tables  at  sides  of  the  room,  the  prosecution  and 
the  defense  facing  each  other.  The  witness  stand  is  next  to  the  judge. 
The  clerk  and  jury  occupy  front  seats.  The  defendant  is  with  his 
lawyers.  If  there  are  plenty  of  chairs  and  space  enough  at  the  front, 
the  jury  may  be  placed  in  one  of  the  front  corners  of  the  room.  If  only 
one  desk  or  table  is  available,  let  the  judge  sit  at  it,  and  the  lawyers 
occupy  front  seats  at  either  side  of  the  room,  with  the  jury  in  the 
middle  seats. 

PROGRESS  OF  THE  TRIAL 

1.  Opening.  The  bailiff  or  the  clerk  calls  the  court  to  order.  The 
judge  reads  the  charge  and  calls  upon  the  defendant  to  plead.  The 
defendant  pleads  not  guilty. 

2.  Evidence.  The  first  witness  for  the  prosecution  is  called  and 
sworn  in  by  the  clerk.  The  prosecution  examines  the  witness,  bringing 
out  by  a  series  of  questions  the  facts  proving  the  guilt  of  the  defendant, 
together  with  his  motive  in  the  act.    Defense  cross-examines  the  witness 

1  As  an  observant  student  puts  it :  "  In  order  to  be  a  good  witness  a 
person  must  listen  to  what  is  being  said  by  the  other  witnesses  and  make 
the  story  hang  together,  telling  only  what  will  agree  with  what  the  others 
on  his  side  have^told.  He  must  take  time  in  thinking  what  he  is  going 
to  say." 


MOCK  TRIAL  37 1 

to  see  if  he  tells  a  consistent  storjf.  Next,  the  first  witness  for  the  de- 
fense is  called  and  sworn.  The  defense  examines  him  and  the  prose- 
cution cross-examines.  The  lawyers  ask  questions  enough  to  make  all 
necessary  facts  perfectly  clear.  The  judge  may  question  witnesses ;  and 
so  may  the  jurors,  with  the  judge's  permission.  The  lawyers  protect 
their  witnesses  from  unfair  or  irrelevant  questions.  Witnesses  are  called 
alternately  by  the  two  sides,  until  all  have  given  their  testimony ;  they 
may  be  recalled  by  either  side  with  the  consent  of  the  judge.  The 
clerk  or  reporters  keep  a  memorandum  of  the  evidence  presented. 
The  clerk  keeps  all  papers  and  exhibits. 

3 .  Argument.  The  lawyers  argue  or  "  plead  "  the  case,  each  trying 
to  show  the  jury  or  the  judge  how  the  evidence  presented  proves  his 
side  of  the  case.  Speakers  alternate,  as  in  a  debate,  the  prosecution 
opening  and  closing.  The  time  for  each  speech  is  as  agreed  upon. 
There  may  be  two  rounds  of  speeches  if  desired. 

4,  Closing.  The  judge  charges  the  jury.  They  stand  while  he  tells 
them  about  the  law  involved  and  charges  them  to  do  their  duty  and 
decide  the  case  according  to  the  law  and  the  evidence.  The  jury  retires, 
elects  a  foreman,  and  decides  the  case.  A  two-thirds  vote  may  decide. 
The  jury  returns  and  the  foreman  gives  the  verdict.  The  jury  may 
make  a  recommendation  to  the  judge.  If  the  defendant  is  found  guilty, 
he  is  sentenced  by  the  judge ;  if  he  is  found  not  guilty,  he  is  discharged. 

EXAMPLES  AND  FORMS 

1.  Criminal  Cases.  Stealing,  assault,  resisting  an  officer,  smuggling, 
kidnapping,  disturbing  the  peace,  vagrancy,  careless  driving  (see  also 
Appendix  II,  section  G,  nos.  5,  15,  17,  18,  22). 

2.  Civil  Cases.  Damages  for  injuries,  libel,  breach  of  contract, 
injury  to  or  by  cattle,  damaged  fences. 

3.  Charge.  "The  people  of  the  State  of  California  hereby  charge 
one  John  J.  Wills  with  cruelty  to  animals,  in  that  he  did  on  the  24th  day 
of  February,  1914,  at  about  3.15  p.m.,  willfully  and  cruelly  injure  a 
dog,  said  dog  being  at  the  time  in  the  front  yard  of  its  owner,  Mrs.  L.  A. 
Derby,  residing  at  2453  West  Rowland  St.  in  the  city  of  Los  Angeles, 
State  of  California." 

4.  Answer.  "  Defendant  John  J.  Wills  herewith  respectfully  answers 
the  charge  of  the  people  of  the  State  of  California,  and  admits  having 


372  APPENDIX  III 

injured  the  dog  at  the  time  and  place  named ;  but  claims  that  said  dog 
was  a  vicious  and  dangerous  dog,  that  defendant  had  a  legitimate  reason 
for  being  upon  the  said  premises,  that  the  said  dog  made  an  attack  upon 
the  defendant,  and  that  the  defendant  acted  in  self-defense." 

5.  Outline  of  Case  for  Prosecution.  "The  defendant  has  a  violent 
temper ;  the  defendant  had  no  right  upon  Mrs.  Derby's  premises ;  the 
defendant  attacked  the  dog  without  provocation;  the  dog  is  harmless." 

6.  Outline  for  Defense.  "  The  dog  is  unsafe ;  defendant  was  attempt- 
ing to  read  the  gas  meter ;  defendant  tried  to  escape ;  the  injury  was 
necessary  and  unavoidable ;  the  injury  was  not  cruel  or  serious." 

7.  Possible  Answers  for  Defense.  No  motive  for  the  crime;  charac- 
ter and  reputation  good ;  legitimate  explanation  of  the  alleged  circum- 
stances. (Alibi  and  mistaken  identity  should  not  be  used  in  a  mock 
trial,  because  the  two  sides  merely  present  two  totally  different  cases, 
and  the  trial  loses  interest.) 

8.  Illegal  Questions  to  a  Witness.  "Are  you  a  church  member?" 
"  The  dog  bit  you,  did  he  not  ?  " 

9.  Objection.  "Your  honor,  we  object  to  the  question  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  incompetent,  irrevelant,  and  immaterial,"  or  "  that  it  is  a  lead- 
ing question,"  or  "  that  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  this  case." 

10.  Answer  to  Objection.  "Your  honor,  we  ask  this  question  in  order 
to  find  out  if  this  witness  has  a  good  character  and  reputation." 

11.  Motions.  "Your  honor,  we  move  [or  "we  ask"]  that  the  case 
be  continued  [postponed]  two  days,"  "that  the  testimony  of  this  witness 
be  ruled  out,"  "  that  a  recess  of  ten  minutes  be  granted."  The  judge 
decides. 

12.  Judge's  Rulings.  "  The  court  sustains  the  objection,"  "  The  ob- 
jection is  overruled,"  "  The  motion  is  granted  [allowed],"  "  The  motion 
is  denied." 

13.  Clerk's  Oaths.  "  Do  you  solemnly  swear  to  tell  the  truth,  the 
whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth  ? "  "  that  you  will  tell  a  consist- 
ent story .'^"  "that  you  will  act  your  part  to  the  best  of  your  ability.^" 
"  that  you  will  do  your  best.?  "  or,  if  fun  is  appropriate,  "  that  you  will 
tell  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  everything  but  the  truth  ? "  that  you 
have  never  been  late  to  school  1 "   "  that  you  have  never  told  a  lie  ?  "  etc. 

14.  Discipline  by  Judge.   "  I  hereby  judge  you  guilty  of  contempt  of 

court,  and  suspend  you  from  taking  part  in  the  trial  for minutes." 

Lawyers  may  be  disbarred  from  the  case  for  repeated  offenses. 


APPENDIX   IV 

PLAN  FOR  A  NATIONAL  POLITICAL  CONVENTION 

Each  student  represents  a  state,  and  should  have  papers  showing 
him  to  be  the  legal  delegate  for  that  state.  Disputes  are  settled  by  the 
committee  on  credentials. 

A  state  or  local  convention  may  be  planned  with  the  help  of  teachers 
or  parents.  Each  student  should  represent  a  particular  city,  district, 
county,  or  society. 

THE  OPENING 

1.  Registration  of  delegates. 

2.  Call  to  order  by  chairman  of  national  committee. 

3.  Report  of  chairman,  with  temporary  roll  call. 

4.  Election  of  temporary  chairman. 

5.  Appointment  of  temporary  clerk. 

6.  Appointment  of  preliminary  committees :  credentials,  organi- 
zation, rules. 

7.  Recess;  committee  meetings. 

8.  Reports  of  preliminary  committees :  permanent  roll  call,  offices, 
rules. 

MAIN  BUSINESS 

1.  Election  of  chairman  and  clerk. 

2.  Appointment  of  committees  :  platform,  notification  (two). 

3.  Nomination  for  nominee  for  president  of  the  United  States. 

4.  Balloting  for  and  election  of  nominee  for  president. 

5.  Nominations  for  nominee  for  vice  president  of  the  United  States. 

6.  Balloting  for  and  election  of  nominee  for  vice  president. 

7.  Report  of  committee  on  platform. 

8.  Debate  upon  and  amendment  of  the  planks  of  the  platform ; 
adoption  of  platform. 

373 


374  APPENDIX  IV 

CLOSING 

1.  Election  of  campaign  committee. 

2.  Election  of  chairman  national  committee. 

3.  Adjournment. 

4.  Notification  of  nominee  for  president ;  address  of  acceptance. 

5.  Notification  of  nominee  for  vice  president;  address  of  acceptance. 


APPENDIX  V 

LISTS  OF  TOPICS  FOR  REFERENCE 

The   following    are   suggestions   for  explanations,   arguments, 
investigations,  committee  reports,  and  parliamentary  motions: 


Advertising 

Agriculture 

Algebra 

American  history' 

Amusements 

Analytic  geometry 

Architecture 

Arithmetic 

Art 

Athletics 

Auditorium 

Automobiles 

Baseball 

Basement 

Batting  cage 

Bells 

Bicycles 

Blackboards 

Bookkeeping 

Books 

Botany 

Boundaries 

Boxing 

Cafeteria 

Calculus 


SCHOOL  AFFAIRS 

Candy 

Ceilings 

Chalk 

Chemistry 

Civics 

Civil  engineering 

Clocks 

Closets 

Clothes 

College  recommendations 

Colleges 

Commercial  geography 

Commercial  law 

Commercial  work 

Composition 

Costume  design 

Costumes 

Curtains 

Dancing 

Debating 

Deportment 

Desks 

Detention 

Detention  room 

Dogs 

375 


Domestic  art 

Domestic  chemistry 

Domestic  science 

Doors 

Dramatics 

Drawings 

Dress 

Dressmaking 

Dues 

Dust 

Economics 

Electricity 

Elevator 

English 

Entertainments 

Entrance  requirements 

Erasers 

Ethics 

Expression 

Fence 

Fencing 

Fire  department 

Fire  drill 

Flies 

Floor 


376 


APPENDIX  V 


Flowers 

Football 

Forge 

Foundry 

Fraternities 

Freehand  drawing 

French 

Furnace 

Games 

Gas 

Gas  engines 

Geography 

Geometry 

German 

Globes 

Graduation 

Grammar 

Graphics 

Grass 

Greek 

Grounds 

Gymnasium 

Halls 

Handball 

Harmony 

Hatracks 

Hats 

Heating 

High  jump 

High  school 

History 

Home  decoration 

Home  furnishing 

Ice 

Ice  cream 

Ink 

Ink  stains 

Italian 

Janitors 

Journalism 


Latin 

Lawn 

Lectures 

Library 

Locker  rooms 

Lockers 

Lunches 

Machinery 

Machine  shop 

Manners 

Manual  training 

Maps 

Mechanical  drawing 

Mechanics 

Millinery 

Morals 

Motor  cycles 

Moving  pictures 

Mud 

Music 

Neighbors 

Night  school 

Noon  hour 

Notices 

Office 

Office  practice 

Oral  English 

Orchestra 

Paint 

Paper 

Parliamentary  law 

Pattern  making 

Pencils 

Penmanship 

Physical  training 

Physics 

Physiography 

Physiology 

Pictures 

Plastering 


Plumbing 

Pottery 

Principal 

Promotions 

Punishment 

Pupils 

Rainy  days 

Reading 

Refuse 

Roof 

School  limits 

School  paper 

Science 

Shop  mathematics 

Shops 

Shot-put 

Sidewalks 

Skating 

Smoking 

Snow 

Sn(.)wballing 

Social  affairs 

Soils 

Solid  geometry 

Spanish 

Spelling 

Sports 

Stage 

Stairs 

Stenography 

Stereopticon 

Storm  signals 

Stoves 

Strength  of  materials 

Street  cars 

Streets 

Student  government 

Studies 

Study  hour 

Surveying 


TOPICS  FOR  REFERENCE 


377 


Swimming 

Teachers 

Textbooks 

Track 
Trash 

Trees 

I'rigonometry 

Turning 

I'ypewriters 

Typewriting 


Vacuum  cleaning 

Varnish 

Ventilation 

Vines 

Volley  ball 

Walls 

Waste  paper 

Wastebaskets 

Water 

Water  polo 


Windows 

Wiring 

Wood  turning 

Woodworking 

Writing 

Writing  on  desks 

Writing  on  walls 

Yard 

Yard  rules 

Zoology 


Amusements 

Animals  kept  in  city 

Annexations 

Aqueduct 

Art  gallery 

Automobiles 

Bathing  beach 

Baths 

Bicycle  riding 

Billboards 

Bonds 

Boulevards 

Boxing  contests 

Bridges 

Building  restrictions 

Canals 

Celebrations 

Chamber  of  Commerce 

Charities 

City  hall 

City  ownership 

Coal  yards 

Curfew  law 

Dairy  ranches 

Dance  halls 

Defense  of  harbor 

Dog  licenses 


CITY   AFFAIRS 

Drinking  fountains 

Elections 

Electric  lights 

Electric  power 

Electric  wires 

Elevated  railway 

Engineering 

Factory  regulation 

Fares 

Ferries 

Finances 

Fire  escapes 

Fire  limits 

Fire  prevention 

Fire  protection 

Fireproof  buildings 

Flood  waters 

Fountains 

Franchises 

Gambling 

Garages 

Gas  company 

Gasoline 

Good  roads 

Harbors 

Ilay  stores 

High  schools 


Home  for  orphans 

Homes  for  aged 

Hospitals 

Hours  of  labor 

Ice 

Lakes 

Laws 

Levees 

Library 

Licenses 

Lighting 

Lights  for  vehicles 

Livery  stables 

Manufacturing 

Markets 

Milk 

Motor  cycles 

Motor  fire  apparatus 

Motor  trucks 

Moving  pictures 

Music 

Newspapers 

Noise 

Parking  automobiles 

Parks 

Peddlers 

Penny  arcades 


378 


APPENDIX  V 


Playgrounds 

Police 

Police  court 

Poultry 

Prison  farm 

Prisons 

Public  markets 

Races 

Railway  crossings 

Railway  signals 

Railway  to  harbor 

Railway  tracks 

Recreation 

River 

River  bed 

River  front 

Safety  devices 

Saloons 

Sanitation 

School  bonds 

Schools 

Sewers 


Sidewalks 

Signboards 

Signs 

Single  tax 

Slaughterhouses 

Smoke 

Smoking  on  cars 

Snow 

Speed  laws 

Stables 

Storm  drains 

Street  cars 

Street  cleaning 

Street  improvements 

Street  lights 

Street  sprinkling 

Street  trees 

Street-car  extension 

Street-car  tracks 

Subways 

Summer  camps 

Surveys 


Swimming 

Tax  on  vehicles 

Taxation 

Taxes  on  business 

Telephone  rates 

Telephone  wires 

Tenements 

Theaters 

Three-cent  fares 

Traffic  rules 

Transfers 

Trees 

Trolley  wires 

Tunnels 

Union  station 

Vacant  lots 

Wages 

Water  supply 

Weeds 

Weights  and  measures 

Wharves 

Zoological  gardens 


Assessments 

Bridges 

Charities 

Constables 

Courthouse 

Detention  home 

Elections 

Engineering 

Finances 


COUNTY  AFFAIRS 

Franchises 
Grand  jury 
Hospital 
Jails 

Juvenile  court 
Libraries 
Lighting 
Poor  farm 
Prison  farm 


Recording 

Roads 

School  tax 

Schools 

Sheriff 

Speeding 

Storm  waters 

Surveys 

Taxes 


Agriculture 

Asylums 

Capital  punishment 

Child  labor 


STATE  AFFAIRS 

Cigarettes 
Courts 
Divorce 
Dredging 


Education 
Eggs 
Elections 
Engineering 


TOPICS  FOR  REFERENCE 


379 


Finances 

Fisheries 

Forests 

Gambling 

Game 

Harbors 

Highways 

HoHdays 

Industrial  accidents 

Irrigation 


Labor  laws 

Library 

Liquor 

Militia 

Mothers'  pensions 

Prize  fights 

Racing 

Railways 

Recall 

Reform  schools 


Rivers 
Schools 
Single  tax 
Speed  laws 
Suffrage 
Surveys 
Sweat  shops 
Taxes 
Voting 
Women's  wages 


Agriculture 

Alaska 

Anarchists 

Arbitration 

Army 

Banking 

Battleships 

Cabinet 

Canada 

Capitol 

Census 

Child  labor 

Chinese 

Coastwise  trade 

Coinage 

Congress 

Conservation 

Constitution 

Consuls 

Cotton 

Courts 

Crop  reports 

Crops 

Cuba 

Currency 

Customs 

Debt 


NATIONAL  AFFAIRS 

Diplomatic  relations 

Direct  elections 

District  of  Columbia 

Education 

Federal  steamships 

Fisheries 

Floods 

Food  laws 

Forest  fires 

Forestry 

Fortifications 

Freight  rates 

Highways 

Homestead  laws 

House  of  Representatives 

Illiteracy 

Immigration 

Income  tax 

Indian  affairs 

Industrial  accidents 

Inheritance  tax 

Internal  revenue 

Interstate  commerce 

Inventions 

Japanese 

Labor 

Lands 


Lighthouses 

Lumbering 

Manufacturing 

Merchant  marine 

Mexico 

Mining  laws 

Mints 

Mississippi 

Money  panics 

Monroe  Doctrine 

National  highway 

Natural  resources 

Naturalization  laws 

Navy 

Negro 

Neutrality 

Panama  Canal 

Parcel  post 

Parks 

Patent  medicines 

Patents 

Patronage 

Pensions 

Philippines 

Political  parties 

Post  offices 

Postage  rates 


38o 


APPENDIX  V 


Prohibition 

Race  question 

Railway  mail  service 

Railway  regulation 

Reclamation 

Rivers 

Seals 

Senate 

Shipping 


Ship  subsidies 
Socialism 
Soldiers'  homes 
South  America 
States'  rights 
Strikes 
Sugar 

Supreme  Court 
Tariff 


Telegraphs 

Treasury 

Treaties 

Trusts 

Unions 

Wages 

War 

Weather  Bureau 

Wireless 


Air  craft 

Armaments 

Astronomy 

Boy  Scouts 

Canals 

China 

Colonization 

Derelicts 

Epidemics 

Esperanto 

Expositions 

Extradition  laws 

Fisheries 

Hague  Conference 

Icebergs 


WORLD  AFFAIRS 

Industrial  relations 

Japan 

Longitude  and  time 

Mexico 

Military  service 

Modern  ships 

Monroe  Doctrine 

Navigation  laws 

Neutralization 

North  pole 

Old-age  pensions 

Olympic  games 

Peace 

Pirates 

Quarantines 


Radium 
Red  Cross 

Russia 

Sabotage 

Sailors'  rights 

Sanitation 

Seals 

Shipping  laws 

Standards 

Submarine  cables 

Syndicalism 

Trade  routes 

Turkey 

War 

Wireless 


Abstract  of  title 
Act  of  God 
Amazon  River 
Amortization 
Ant  eater 
Arson 
Banks 
Barometer 
Black  list 
Blotter 


OTHER  TOPICS 

Booker  T.  Washington 

Boycott 

Bricks 

Building  materials 

Burglary 

Butter 

Camera 

Celluloid 

Cement 

Child  welfare 


Citizenship 

Clearing  house 

Common  carrier 

Consumers'  League 

Contract 

Copyright 

Corporation 

Cremation 

Dartmouth  College  Case 

Deed 


TOPICS  FOR  REFERENCE 


381 


Diving  bell 

Divorce 

Dred  Scott 

Eminent  domain 

Excess  condemnation 

Fly 

Game  of  cricket 

German  Empire 

Grafting  trees 

Grand  opera 

Habeas  corpus 

Habit 

Helen  Keller 

High  seas 

Horticulture 

Hull  House 

Hyde  Park 

Income  tax 

Ink 

Insurance 

Karl  Marx 

Ladybug 

Lard 


Laws 

Log  of  a  ship 
Luther 

Mariner's  compass 
Masons 

Minimum  wage 
Moonshiners 
Mormonism 
Mortgage 
Naturalization 
Newspapers 
Night  riders 
Nile  River 
Obsolescence 
Oleomargarine 
Original  package 
Partnership 
Poverty 

Preferential  voting 
Printing  press 
Proportional  repre- 
sentation 
Pump 


Pyramids 

Railway  systems 

Real  estate 

Religious  liberty 

Rubber 

Salvation  Army 

Scientific  management 

Seeds 

Shoes 

Short  ballot 

Socrates 

Soils 

Spectrum 

Spider 

Sports 

SubpcEna 

Thermometer 

Tobacco 

Trade-marks 

Vocational  guidance 

Volcanoes 

Weather  forecasting 

Windmill 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Cities  of  the  state. 

2.  Cities  of  the  United  States. 

3.  Foreign  cities. 

4.  Countries. 

5.  Vocations. 

6.  Famous  people. 

7.  Famous  books. 

8.  Famous  inventions. 

9.  Important  events. 

10.  Great  industries  :  their  development ;  their  present  status. 

11.  The  best  magazines  or  newspapers. 

12.  Some  interesting  books  of  to-day. 

13.  Needed  reforms  in  social  or  political  life. 

14.  How  the  city  may  be  beautified. 


382  APPENDIX  V  " 

15.  How  our  school  or  college  may  be  improved. 

16.  How  the  school  may  prepare  for  life. 

17.  Inventions  that  should  be  made. 

18.  The  customs  of  foreign  peoples. 

19.  Significant  topics  in  art,  architecture,  music,  painting,  commerce, 
agriculture,  manufacture,  travel,  recreation. 

20.  Opinions  and  discussions  upon  ethical  questions. 


APPENDIX    VI 

REFERENCE  TABLES 

A.    SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORAL  ENGLISH  RECITATIONS 

This  summary  will  aid  the  student  in  finding  interesting  topics : 
Narration  :  current  events,  stories,  jokes,  fables,  experiences. 
Description  :  cities,  parks,  landscapes,  natural  wonders,  pictures, 
animals,  costumes,  people,  technical  descriptions. 
Explanation : 

1.  How  to  make  and  how  to  do  useful  things :  furniture,  decora- 
tions, clothing,  cooking,  household  helps,  building,  gardening,  care 
of  animals,  farming. 

2.  Technical  operations  and  articles :  commercial  methods  and 
customs,  scientific  processes,  electricity,  automobiles,  transportation, 
chemistr)^,  photography,  manufacture,  shop  work. 

3.  Civic  affairs :  laws,  plans  for  improvement,  reforms,  politics. 

4.  Others :  value  of  specific  occupations,  art,  music,  education, 
games,  tricks,  puzzles. 

Argument : 

1.  Business:  selling,  advertising,  soliciting,  collecting  bills. 

2.  Politics  :  parties,  candidates,  foreign  relations,  railroads,  labor 
unions,  socialism,  suffrage,  liquor,  poverty. 

3.  Other  arguments :  school  affairs,  social  questions,  vocations. 
Special   Talks :    introduction,   welcome,  farewell,  presentation, 

acceptance,  gratitude,  toast,  oration,  eulogy,  nomination,  inaugura- 
tion, announcement,  committee  report. 

Conversation  :   interviews,  social  conversations. 

Dramatics  :  memorized  or  extempore  plays,  mock  trials. 

Reading  :   clippings,  advertisements,  poems,  stories,  speeches. 

5^3 


384  APPENDIX  VI 

B.    PRECEDENCE  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  MOTIONS 

BRIEF  LIST  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Not  Debatable    f  Adjourn. 

and  <  Lay  on  the  Table. 

Not  Amendable  |^Stop  Debate  =  Previous  Question.     2/3 


Debatable 

and 
Amendable 


Postpone  to  a  Definite  Time. 
Refer  to  a  Committee. 
Amend. 
Main  Motion. 


Directions  for  Table  B 

1.  When  any  motion  in  Table  B  is  before  the  house  (moved 
and  stated  but  not  yet  voted  upon),  any  other  motion  which  is 
above  it  in  the  table  may  be  regularly  moved,  and  will  tempo- 
rarily supplant  the  first  motion. 

2.  Any  motion  which  is  below  the  motion  before  the  house 
is  out  of  order  and  may  not  be  moved. 

3.  When  the  motion  of  higher  rank  is  decided,  the  meeting 
proceeds  to  the  consideration  of  the  motion  which  was  sup- 
planted, unless  the  vote  already  taken  disposes  of  both. 

Directions  for  Table  C 

1.  Amend  and  Postpone  Indefinitely  are  bracketed  ;  neither 
may  supplant  the  other. 

2.  The  six  incidental  motions  are  bracketed  : 

a.  Any  motion  of  the  group  may  supersede  any  motion 
below  the  group. 

b.  The  Objection  to  the  Consideration  of  a  Question  may 
be  applied  only  to  a  principal  motion. 

c.  Any  motion  within  the  group,  except  the  objection,  may 
be  applied  to  any  other  motion  within  the  group. 

d.  Any  incidental  motion,  except  the  objection,  may  be  ap- 
plied to  any  other  motion  outside  the  group,  whether  such  motion 
be  above  or  below  the  group  in  the  table. 

3.  In  all  other  points  Table  C  is  used  as  is  Table  B. 


REFERENCE  TAl'.LES 


3^5 


C.    PRECEDENCE  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  MOTIONS 


A—      Time  for  Next  Meeting. 

Adjourn. 
A  —      Recess. 
D—  A—      "Question  of  Privilege"  (treat  as  a  principal 
motion). 
"  Orders  of  the  Day."         NS 
f"  Appeal." 
"  Point  of  Order."  NS 

"Objection  to  the  Consideration  of  a  Ques- 
tion."       NS  —         2/3 
Reading  Papers. 
Withdrawal  of  a  Motion. 
Suspension  of  Rules.        2/3 
Lay  on  the  Table. 

Previous  Question  =  Stop  Debate.        2/3 
D—  A—      Postpone  to  a  Definite  Time. 
D—  A—       Refer  to  a  Committee. 

D  —  A  —     ["  Amend  (change  wording,  substitute  motion,  divide  ques- 
\       tion). 
D  —    [^  Postpone  Indefinitely. 
D  —  A  —       Principal    Motion  (main   motion,  rescind,  expunge, 
etc.). 


KEY 

D  = 

=  debatable             NS  =  no  second  is  required 

A  = 

=  amendable           Quotation  marks  ("  ")  =  in  order  when 

another  person  has  the  floor 

2/3  =  two-thirds  vote  necessary  to  carry 

See  directions  under  Table  B 

Chapter  XIV  deals  with  parliamentary  law.  Pages  304- 
320  give  the  general  classification  of  motions,  illustrations  in 
the  use  of  Tables  B  and  C,  and  brief  directions  for  the  use  of 
each  motion.     Reconsider  may  be  found  dh  ixi<;c  330. 


386 


APPENDIX  VI 


D.    PRONUNCIATION  KEY 


•  [This  table  is  to  be 
does  not  know  how  to 


used  by  the  student  in  marking  words  which  he 
pronounce,  as  suggested  on  page  58.] 


a   bake  (bak) 

1 

time  (tim) 

ou,  ow 

town 

they  (tha) 

ply  (plT) 

out 

fail  (fal) 

eye  (!) 
life  (llf) 

mount 

a   cat 

g 

go 

sad 

i 

It 

get 

hat 

tin 
lid 

game  (gam) 

a    care  (car) 

busy  (bisi) 

J.  g 

jet 

bear  (bar) 

gern^ 

there  (thar) 

0 

old 

angel 

their  (thar) 

no 

air  (ar) 

blow  (bio) 

k,  € 

king 
cat 

a   arm 

V 

0 

not 

cost 

far 

what  (wh6t) 

father 

was  (wos) 
top 

s,  9 

site  (sit) 
city  (9iti) 

a    ask 

9ent 

dance  (dan9) 

u 

mule  (mul) 

last  (last) 

few  (fu) 
tube  (tub) 

z,  s 

zinc 
his 

J. 

a    all 

was  (w6§) 

walk  (wak) 

u 

but 

nor  (nar) 

tub 

sh 

shiit 

jaw 

son  (siin) 

nation  (nashiin) 
machine  (mashen) 

e    be 

U,  00 

full 

sure  (shoor) 

meat  (met) 

foot  (fut) 

machine  (mashen) 

put 

book  (buk) 

th 

thin 
think 

e    net 

pith 

end 

00 

food 

beg 

rule  (rool) 
boot 

th 

they  (tha) 
thine  (thin) 

e    term 

then 

firm  (ferm) 

oi 

oil 

smooth 

fern 

boy  (boi) 

urn  (ern) 

toil 

worm  (werm) 

REFERENCE  TABLES  387 

E.    STEPS  TO  BE  TAKEN  IN  PREPARING  AN  EXERCISE  IN 

ORAL  ENGLISH 

1.  Study  the  exercise  to  discover  exactly  what  is  required. 

2.  Select  the  particular  subject  which  is  to  be  used  for  the  talk. 

3.  Review   the  text  for  the    purpose  of  gaining  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  principles  involved  in  the  exercise. 

4.  Obtain  the  necessary  experiences :  thinking,  observing,  read- 
ing, experimenting,  interviewing,  discussing. 

5.  Study  and  classify  the  material  which  is  to  be  used. 

6.  Prepare  the  outline  :  find  the  main  topics  ;  complete  the  out- 
line ;  prepare  the  cards  which  are  to  be  used  in  giving  the  talk. 

7.  Practice  the  talk :  repeat  the  talk  just  as  it  is  to  be  given  in 
class.    Do  not  memorize. 

8.  Face  the  class  with  the  desire  to  contribute  something  useful 
and  interesting. 


388 


APPENDIX  VI 


F.   A  SCALE  FOR  MARKING  ORAL  ENGLISH  RECITATIONS 

DIRECTIONS 

Mark  an  X  in  the  appropriate  column  after  each  item  which  apphes  to  the 
particular  speech  being  examined.  Thus,  if  the  talk  is  obviously  a  descrip- 
tion, and  its  treatment  of  details  is  fairly  good,  put  an  X  in  the  column  labeled 
"  Fair,"  after  the  topic,  "Details  well  handled."  The  marks  maybe  connected 
down  the  page,  to  show  graphically  the  general  quality  of  the  talk.  Scoring 
by  percentages  is  not  very  reliable.  If  it  is  desired,  however,  the  following 
plan  may  be  used :  Call  excellent  9  points  (or  90  per  cent),  good  8  points, 
fair  7  points,  poor  6  points.  Suppose  a  student  gains  three  9's,  four  8's,  six 
7's,  and  two  6's,  he  would  then  have  27  +  32  +  42  +  12,  or  1 13  points  in  all. 
Since  he  has  been  marked  on  15  items,  his  average  would  be  75  per  cent. 

For  all  talks : 

1.  Value  and  interest  of  the  subject  selected   .     . 

2.  Value  of  the  details  selected  for  the  talk     . 

3.  Outline  of  the  talk 

4.  Outline  made  clear  to  the  hearers      .... 

5.  Use  of  illustrations  and  other  helps  .... 

6.  Opening  words  —  introduction 

7.  Closing  words 

8.  Vocabulary  —  appropriate,  correct,  and  varied 

9.  Fluency  

10.  Variety  and  emphasis  in  tone,  pitch,  and  speed 

11.  Enthusiasm 

1 2.  Control  of  body,  and  gestures 

13.  Use  of  face  and  eyes 

For  unclassified  talks : 

14.  Naturalness  and  adaptation  to  purpose  . 

15.  General  effectiveness 

For  explanations : 
14. 
15.  Clearness 

For  arguments : 

14.  Evidence  well  handled 

I  5.  Effectiveness  of  reasoning  .... 

For  narrations : 

14.  Details  made  interesting  throughout 

15.  Plot  or  point  well  brought  out      .     . 

For  descriptions : 

14.  Details  well  handled  .     ..... 

15.  Vividness  of  effect 


Knowledge  of  material 


E       G      F      P 

X 

X_ 

X 

X 

X 

x^ 

x^ ~ 

x 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X ~ 

X 

X 


INDEX 


Accepting  a  report,  329 

Additional  talks  and  exercises,  195- 
224;  reading,  195;  current  topics, 
201  ;  discussions,  203;  impromptu 
talks,  207  ;  humorous  stories  and 
jokes,  209;  interviews,  212;  con- 
versations, 216;  extempore  plays, 
220.  Exercises:  199,  202,  206, 
208,  211,  215,  218,  224 

Adjourn,  motion  to,  307,  3S4,  3S5 

Adopting  a  report,  329 

Affirmative,  first  speaker  of,  278; 
second  speaker  of,  282 

After-dinner  speech,  186 

Aids,  in  explanations,  reference 
books  as,  11,  236;  drawings  as, 
II,  19,  21,  152;  diagrams  as,  11, 
153,  241  ;  gestures  as,  18;  use  of 
objects  as,  18,  19,  154;  simple 
devices  as,  20 ;  in  acquiring  a 
vocabulary,  66 ;  in  description, 
98;  technical  terms  as,  155;  maps 
as,  202 ;  in  collecting  evidence,  237 

Amend,  motion  to,  306,  316,   331, 

384,  385 
Analogy,    121  ;    reasoning  by,   247, 

248 ;  tests  of,  249 

Announcement  speech,  176  ;  prepa- 
ration for,  176;  importance  of 
detail  in,  177 

Appeal,  in  debate,  263 ;  uses  of, 
264;  by  second  negative,  283, 
284;  parliamentary,  309,  321,  385 

Appearance  of  speaker,  44-56 ;  be- 
fore speaking,  45  ;  as  to  standing 
position,  45  ;  as  to  hands  and  feet, 
46 ;  after  speaking,  47  ;  as  to  facial 
expression,  51;  as  to  head,  52; 
as  to  use  of  eyes,  53.    Exercises : 

44,  47,  5''  55 
Argument,    for    beginners,    25-43 ; 
everyday,  25,  225;   preliminaries 


to,  25;  definiteness  in,  26;  con- 
sideration in,  26 ;  subjects  for, 
27,  31,  32;  and  explanation,  29; 
outline  for,  30,  35-38  ;  preparing 
for,  32-3S;  practicing,  38,  39; 
gestures  in,  48;  abstract,  119; 
summary  for,  132;  use  of  stories 
in,  211.  Exercises:  27,30,31,33, 
■36,  38,  40,  42 

Argument  and  debate,  225-288; 
nature  of,  225  ;  correct  spirit  in, 
226;  preliminaries  for,  227;  in- 
troduction and  analysis  of,  230, 
257  ;  building  up  of,  235;  reason- 
ing in,  246;  brief  of,  254,  270; 
rebuttal  in,  265 ;  practice  for 
speech  of,  270;  good  will  in, 
274  ;  teamwork  in,  276-286.  Ex- 
ercises :  229,  234,  243,  251,  259, 
264,  269,  275,  286.  See  specific 
topics   in   Index 

Arranging  and  conducting  debates, 
339-356;  interschool,  339;  in 
debating  leagues,  344;  within 
the  school,  348;  triangular,  351  ; 
single,  352 ;  with  sides  chosen 
before  the  audience,  352 ;  with 
proposition  selected  shortly  be- 
fore the  debate,  352  ;  with  three 
speakers  on  each  side,  353  ;  with- 
out special  rebuttal,  353;  with  time 
division  optional,  353 ;  with  no 
decision,  353 ;  with  same  resolu- 
tion for  all  schools  and  for  suc- 
cessive debates,  356 

At  large,  333 

Body  of  explanatory  talk,  145 

Hrief,  example  of,  254  ;  expansion 

of,  256;  analysis  for,  257;  order 

of  points  in,  258;  concliLsion  of, 

262  ;  rebuttal  in,  265 ;  use  of,  in 


389 


390 


INDEX 


making  speech,  270 ;  teamwork 
in  preparing,  277 

Business,  meetings,  291  ;  order  of, 
302  ;  introduction  of,  321 

Business  talks,  102-113;  need  for, 
102  ;  appeal  to  interest  and  serv- 
ice in,  102;  description  or  expla- 
nation in,  104  ;  telling  the  advan- 
tages in,  105;  showing  the  goods  in, 
105  ;  emphasizing  details  in,  105; 
giving  references  in,  106;  giving 
terms  in,  107 ;  definiteness  in, 
108;  conclusion  of,  no;  answer- 
ing questions  in,  in;  choosing 
subjects  for,  n 2.  Exercises:  104, 
106,  109,  III,  112,  113 

By-laws,  297  ;  sample,  300  ;  amend- 
ing, 301 

Call,  for  the  orders  of  the  day,  309, 
321,  385;  of  the  house,  333 

Calling,  for  business,  335 ;  for  a 
second,  335  ;  for  debate,  335 

Cards,  sample  note,  242 ;  refuta- 
tion, 267 ;  use  in  speech,  270 ; 
sample,  272;  placing,  for  debate, 
278  ;  order  of,  for  rebuttal,  284 

Chairman,  importance  of,  296  ;  tem- 
porary, 297  ;  duties  of,  322 

Charts,  use  of,  in  debate,  242 

Class,  debating,  351 

Climax,  in  narration,  86;  in  sen- 
tence, 118 

Coherence,  in  outline,  126,  128,  149; 
in   details,  129;   in  speech,   150 

Commit,  333 

Committees,  need  for  and  kinds  of, 
327;  standing,  327;  special,  327  ; 
report  of,  328;  of  the  whole,  331 

Communications,  335 

Conclusion,  of  explanation,  14,  17; 
of  argument,  39 ;  of  narration,  88 ; 
of  description,  97;  of  business 
talk,  no;  in  form  of  summary, 
132  ;  broad  and  comprehensive, 
133;  illustrative  sentences  for, 
133,  134;  importance  of,  134; 
of  explanation,  148;  distinctness 
in,  170;  of  current  topics,  201; 
make  sure  of,  28C ;  of  brief,  262 


Consideration,  objection  to,  31 1 ,  32 1, 
385.    See  Courtesy 

Constitution,  of  an  organization, 
297  ;  sample,  298  ;  amending,  299 

Control,  of  hands,  46,  50;  of  facial 
expression,  51,  52;  of  thoughts 
and  feelings,  52 ;  of  tone  of 
voice,  292 

Conversations,  216;  in  argument,  25 

Courtesy,  in  interviews,  212 ;  in 
argument,  26,  274;  during  debate, 
284 ;  in  using  time,  2S6 ;  in  use 
of  parliamentary  law,  290 ;  in 
business  meetings,  291 ;  as  fair 
play,  295 

Credentials,  333 

Critic,  report  of,  302,  303,  325 ; 
sample  report  of,  335 

Criticism,  of  gestures,  49 ;  teacher's, 
303  ;  of  talks,  388 

Debatable  motions,  306,  384,  385 
Debate,  and  simple  argument,   25, 
29;  simple,  40;  exercises  on,  42; 
synonyms  used  in,  64;  and  formal 
discussion,  204;  steps  in  prepara- 
tion for,  230;  brief  of,  254;  team- 
work in,    276 ;    motion   to   stop, 
314,    384,    385;    rules    of,    322; 
interschool,  339.    ^1?,?  Argument 
Debating,  leagues,  344  ;  class,  351 
Deduction,  247  ;  tests  of,  249 
Definition,  136;    by  interpretation, 
137 ;     by    distinguishing    differ- 
ences,  137;    of   technical  terms, 
155;  of  oration,  189;  in  debating, 
231,  239  ;  in  rebuttal,  266  ;  of  par- 
liamentary terms,  333 
Democracy  in  parliamentary  prac- 
tice, 290-296 
Demonstrations,  18,  19,  154 
Description,    gi-ioi  ;    purpose    of, 
91  ;  aid  of  senses  in,  91  ;  outline 
for,    92 ;    point    of   view    in,   93 ; 
central  idea  of,  94  ;  order  of  parts 
of,  95 ;  conclusion  of,  97  ;  helps 
in,  98  ;    technical,  99  ;    concrete 
character  of,   119;    as   evidence, 
226.     Exercises :  92,  93,  94,  96, 
97,  98,  100 


INDEX 


391 


Diacritical  marks,  5S.  386 

Dictionar)-,  use  of,  for  pronunciation, 
58 ;  for  spelling.  66 ;  in  prepara- 
tion for  reading,  197 

Dilemma.  266 

Discussion,  of  current  topics,  202  ; 
informal,  203 ;  how  conducted, 
204;  in  parliamentary  society,  295 

Divide  the  question,  319,  385 

Division,  vote  of,  331,  333 

Drawing  diagrams,  11,   19,  21,   152, 

153'  241 
Duties  of  officers,  321-327 

Elections,  332 

Equipment  for  doing  and  making,  6 

Eulogy,  191 

Evidence,  225;  collecting,  235; 
sources  of,  236-239  ;  testing,  239  ; 
recording,  241,  242 ;  arranging, 
241 ;  distinguished  from  reasoning, 
246.    Exercise:  243 

Example,  reasoning  by,  247,  248 ; 
tests  of,  249 

Examples  and  illustrations,  118 

Executive  committee,  327 

Executive  session,  331 

Ex-officio,  333 

Explanation,  3-24,  136-162;  every- 
day, 3  ;  defined,  5  ;  preparation 
for,  5-17;  outline  of,  6,  13;  of 
process,  6;  helps  in,  11,  13,  18- 
20;  logical  order  of,  13  ;  subjects 
for,  20,  22-24,  i5<*^-i62,  375-382; 
abstract,  119;  additional  consider- 
ations in,  136-162  ;  kinds  of,  136; 
defining  in,  136;  analyzing  in, 
137;  of  reasons  and  purposes,  140; 
of  processes  and  operations,  142  ; 
collecting  the  material  for,  142; 
introduction  of  talk  in,  143;  out- 
line of,  145-149;  as  evidence, 
226;  in  debate,  233.  Exercises: 
8,  II,  15,  17.  20,  22,  138,  141,  143, 
144,  147,  149,  151,  156-162 

Expunge,  320,  385 

Extempore  plays,  220;  evolved 
from  interviews,  220;  plot  of, 
221;  preparation  for,  223;  pres- 
entation of,  224 


Extempore  practice,  64  ;  of  debate 
speech,  271 

Extempore  and  impromptu  speak- 
ing, 207 

Eyes,  use  of,  in  speaking,  53 

Farewell  speech,  192 

Filling  blanks,  319,  331 

Fix  time  for  next  meeting,  306,  385 

Floor,  obtaining  the,  321,  322,  385 

Fluency,  62-68 

Forms,  for  evidence,  242  ;  for  de- 
bater's cards,  272  ;  parliamentary, 
335;  for  mock  trial,  371 

Forms  of  discourse,  "]"] 

Gestures,  48  ;  in  debate,  270 

Grading  talks,  388 

Grammar,  correction  of,  errors  in, 

72-76 
Gregg's  "Parliamentary  Law,"  291, 


Helps.  See  Aids 

Historian,  326 

History  in  debate,  231,  279 

How  to  make  and  how  to  do.    See 

Explanation 
Humor,  in  nomination  speech,  iSi  ; 

in  toast,  186;  in  argument,  211 
Humorous  propositions  for  debate, 

366 
Humorous  stories  and  jokes,  209 

Imagination,  use  of,  122 
Impromptu     speech,     207  ;      rapid 
thinking  in,  207;  in  interviews,  2 1 5 
Inauguration  speech,  192 
Indefinite  postponement,  319,  385 
Individual    competition    in    debate, 

356  _ 
Induction,  reasoning  by,  247,  250; 

tests  of,  249 
Informal  action,  291,  322,  331 
Interclass  debating  tournament,  349 
Interpretation,  of  passages,  137  ;  of 

questions  in  debate,  231,  279,  280, 

343 
Interschool  debate,  339  ;  the  agree- 
ment, 339 ;    preparation  at  each 


392 


INDEX 


school,  341  ;  immediate  prepara- 
tion, 343  ;  the  contest,  343 

Interviews,  courtesy  and  directness 
in,  212  ;  agreements  made  in,  214  ; 
teamwork  in,  278 

Introduction,  of  explanation,  14,  16, 
143;  of  narration,  80  ;  importance 
of,  131  ;  of  a  speaker,  182  ;  of  cur- 
rent topics,  201  ;  of  one  person 
to  another,  217;  of  debate,  230, 
233 ;  given  by  first  affirmative, 
278;  of  business,  321 

Introductory  outline,  144 

Issues,  of  debate  question,  232,  257  ; 
restated,  262 ;  divided  between 
members  of  a  team,  277 ;  fair 
statement  of,  279 ;  acceptance 
of,  281 

Jefferson's  Manual,  289 

Jokes,  209;  point  of,  210;  kind  to 
tell,  210;  application  of,  211 

Judgment,  of  helps  in  explanations, 
19 ;  of  speaker  by  appearance, 
45  ;  in  use  of  gestures,  49  ;  in  use 
of  slang,  70 ;  of  person  careless 
in  speech,  72  ;  in  giving  terms  in 
business  talks,  107  ;  in  the  use  of 
pauses,  167  ;  in  forceful  speaking, 
174;  in  choice  of  current  topics, 
201  ;  in  debate  refutation,  267,  284 

Key,  for  use  of  motions,  306,  385; 
for  pronunciation,  386 

Lay  on  the  table,  313,  384,  385 

Leagues,  debating,  344 

Limit,  of  time  in  debate,  273 ; 
marked  on  cards,  285 ;  fairness 
in  observing,  286 ;  of  parliamen- 
tary debate,  330 

Lists  of  topics  for  reference  :  school 
affairs,  375;  city  affairs,  377; 
county  affairs,  378 ;  state  affairs, 
378  ;  national  affairs,  379  ;  world 
affairs,  380  ;  other  topics,  380 ; 
general  suggestions,  381 

Main  motion,  320,  384,  385 
Majority  and  plurality,  333 


Marking  talks,  388 

Meeting  and  session,  333 

Memoranda,  of  new  words,  60 ;  of 
material  preserved,  143  ;  of  facts 
in  brief,  256;  for  team  mates,  278 

Memorization  to  be  avoided,  64,  66, 
187,  190,  271,  387 

Minority  report,  329 

Minutes,  302,  303,  325,  336;  dis- 
pensing with,  338 

Mock  trial,  369-372  ;  choice  of  offi- 
cers for,  369 ;  preliminary  plans 
for,  369  ;  progress  of,  370 ;  ex- 
amples and  forms  of,  371 

Motions,  precedence  of,  294,  384, 
385 ;  kind  to  make,  295 ;  classi- 
fication of,  304 ;  illustrations  in 
use  of,  304;  pending,  305;  direc- 
tions for  use  of,  306 ;  withdrawal 
of,  312;  tabled,  313;  substitute, 
318  ;  principal  or  main,  320;  spe- 
cial, 330;  to  reconsider,  330;  re- 
newal of,  333 

Narration,  77-90;  subjects  for,  79; 
planning,  80 ;  introduction  for, 
80;  point  of  view  in,  81  ;  details 
in,  82  ;  kinds  of,  83  ;  without  plot, 
83  ;  with  plot,  86  ;  climax  in,  86  ; 
conclusion  of,  88  ;  concrete,  1 19 ; 
in  humorous  stories,  209 ;  as  evi- 
dence, 226.    Exercises  :  79,  84,  88 

National  political  convention,  373 

Negative,  first  speaker  of,  280 ; 
second  speaker  of,  282 

Nominating  speech,  179,  332;  ap- 
peal for  votes  in,  180;  originality 
in,  181 

Nominations,  closing,  330,  332 

Notes,  taking,  13  ;  may  be  dispensed 
with,  14,  16;  use  in  a  speech,  54, 
55  ;  in  announcement  speech, 
177  ;  in  argument,  242,  270,  272  ; 
on  opponent's  speech,  280,  282 ; 
secretary's,  324 

Notice  for  reconsideration,  321,  330 

Objection  to  consideration,  31 1,  321, 

385 
Obtaining  the  floor,  321,  322 


INDEX 


393 


Officers,  rights  and  duties  of,  321  ; 
chairman,  322  ;  president,  323  ; 
vice  president,  324 ;  secretary, 
324;  critic,  325;  treasurer,  326; 
sergeant  at  arms,  326 ;  historian, 
326 ;  combinations  of  duties  of, 
326;  special  duties  of,  327;  re- 
ports of,  335-338  ;  for  mock  trial, 

369 
Old  business,  302,  303,  315 
Opening    words,   of    narration.   So ; 
of  business  talks,  103.    See  Intro- 
duction 
Oration,  189;  appeal  in,  263 
Order,  of  points,  in  description,  92, 
128;  in  narration,  128;  in  expla- 
nation, 13,  128,  145  ;  in  argument, 
34,  128,  258  ;  rules  of,  298,  300  ;  of 
business,    300,    302,    303 ;    point 
of,  310,  321,385;  special,  313,  330 
"Order,   Rules  of,"   Robert's,   291, 

Orders  of  the  day,  309,  31 5,  321.  3^5 
Outline,  for  explanation,  6,  14;  for 
simple  argument,  30,  35,  36;  for 
description.  92  ;  unity  and  coher- 
ence in,  126,  128;  introduction 
of,  131;  conclusion  of,  132;  by 
cause  and  effect,  146;  by  prob- 
lem and  solution,  146;  making  a 
clear,  149;  for  announcement 
speech,  177;  for  nominating 
speech,  179;  for  speech  of  in- 
troduction, 182;  for  presentation 
and  response  speech,  185;  for 
oration,  190;  for  current  topics, 
201 ;  for  impromptu  speech,  207; 
equivalent  to  finding  issues,  232  ; 
equivalent  to  brief,  254,  2 58;  for 
refutation,  267  ;  of  opponent's 
speech,  280 ;  for  committee  re- 
port, 328.   See  Brief 

Parliamentary  law,  289-338 ;  gen- 
eral considerations  of,  289-296; 
origin  of,  289 ;  need  of  in  Oral 
English  study,  289;  value  of,  290; 
when  used,  291  ;  how  used,  292; 
precedence  of  motions  in,  294 ; 
society  for  use  of,  296;  order  of 


business  in,  302  ;  precedence  of 
questions  in,  304 ;  rights  and 
duties  of  officers  and  members 
under,  32 1  ;  committee  work  and 
reports  under,  327  ;  special  points 
of,  330;  special  processes  in,  331 ; 
technical  terms  in,  333 ;  special 
forms  of,  335.  Exercises :  294. 
See  specific  topics  in  Index 

Parliamentary  society,  204  ;  organi- 
zation of,  293,  296;  name  of,  293; 
programs  of,  294 ;  constitution 
and  rules  of,  297  ;  order  of  busi- 
ness in,  302  ;  rights  and  duties  of 
members  and  officers  in,  321  ; 
m'inutes  of,  336 

Pending,  305,  334 

Place  for  next  meeting,  307 

Plays,  extempore.  See  Extempore 
plays 

Plot,  in  narration,  83,  86 ;  climax  in, 
86;  in  extempore  plays,  221 

Plurality,  334 

Point  of  order,  310,  321,  385 

Point  of  view,  in  narration,  81  ;  in 
description,  93 

Position,  of  body,  when  speaking, 
45;  unsupported,  46;  after  the 
talk,  47  ;  of  head,  52  ;  active  in 
standing,  164 

Postpone,  to  a  definite  time,  315, 
384,  385;  indefinitely,  319,  385 

Practice,  in  explanations,  16;  in 
arguments,  38 ;  in  control  of  feet 
and  hands,  47;  of  gestures,  48; 
of  extempore  speaking,  64  ;  for 
correcting  grammar,  72;  of  ex- 
planatory talk,  149;  of  tongue 
and  lips,  165;  for  range  of  tone, 
172;  of  toasts,  1S8;  for  reading, 
197  ;  in  impromptu  speaking, 
207;  of  interviews,  214;  of  de- 
bate speech,  270;  for  refutation, 
285  ;  of  parliamentary  motions, 
294  ;  parliamentary,  303 

Precedence,  of  motions,  294;  moan- 
ing of,  304 ;  tables  for,  384,  385 

Presentation  speech,  184 

President,  323 

Previous  question,  314,  384,  385 


394 


INDEX 


Principal  or  main  motion,  320,  384, 

385 

Priority,  294,  334,  384,  385 

Privilege,  question  of,  307,  321,  385 

Privileged  questions,  304 

Program  of  meeting,  294,  302,  303 

Pronunciation,  of  new  words,  57 ; 
exercises  in,  58,  59 ;  key  for,  386 

Proposition,  statement  of,  227  ; 
analysis  of,  230 ;  issues  of,  232  ; 
proof  of,  235 

Propositions  for  debate,  357  ;  edu- 
cational, 357 ;  national  affairs, 
360;  local  interests,  361;  civics, 
economics,  sociology,  363  ;  sci- 
ence, 365  ;  athletics,  366;  humor- 
ous, 366;  miscellaneous,  367 

Prospective  outline,  144, 270, 279,280 

Pro  tem,  334 

Proverbs,  concrete,  120;  abstract, 
121;  exercises  with,   124-126 

I'roxy,  334 

Punctuation  in  speaking,  167,  169, 
172 

Putting  the  motion,  321,  335 

Question,  the  real,  231  ;  issues  of, 
232;  of  privilege,  307,  321,  385; 
objection  to  the,  311,  321,  385; 
previous,  314,  384.  385 

Questions,  in  argument,  26 ;  in  busi- 
ness talks.  III;  in  interviews, 
213;  to  be  avoided,  228;  inter- 
pretation of,  280 ;  precedence  of, 
304,  384,  385;  privileged,  304; 
incidental,  304  ;  subsidiary,  304  ; 
principal,  304,  384,  385.  See 
Motions,  Propositions  for  debate 

Quorum,  301,  334 

Rally  speech,  192 

Reading,  as  aid  to  fluency,  66 ;  in 
class,  subjects  for,  195  ;  prepara- 
tion for,  196;  at  sight,  197;  for 
a  debate,  236  ;  quotations,  274  ; 
teamwork  in,  278;  papers,  311, 
385.    Exercises:   199 

Reasoning  and  evidence,  246;  kinds 
of,  247  ;  tests  of,  249,  250  ;  apply- 
ing, 250 


Rebuttal,  265  ;  notes  for,  265  ;  sum- 
mary of  methods  for,  268  ;  placing 
of  notes  for,  278.    See  Refutation 

Recess,  motion  for,  307,  385 

Recitations,  See  Subjects,  Program 
of  meeting.  Marking  talks 

Recognition  by  chairman,  obtaining, 
and  immediate,  306,  321,  322,  385 

Reconsider,  motion  to,  330 

Refer  to  a  committee,  315,  384,  385 

Reference,  books,  11,  58,  66,  197, 
236,  239  ;  tables,  383  ;  suggestions 
for  Oral  English  recitations,  383 ; 
precedence  of  parliamentary  mo- 
tions, 384,  385 ;  pronunciation 
key,  386;  steps  in  preparing  an 
exercise,  387  ;  scale  for  marking 
talks,  388 

References,  and  quotations,  use  in 
debate,  274;  topics  for,  375; 
tables,  383 

Refutation,  264 ;  special  methods, 
266  ;  outline  for,  267  ;  centering 
attack  in,  267  ;  cards  for,  267  ;  by 
first  affirmative,  279;  by  first  nega- 
tive, 281;  speeches,  2S3.  See  Re- 
buttal 

Renewal  of  a  motion,  333 

Report,  committee,  328 ;  minority, 
329;  disposal  of,  329;  critics,  302, 

303.325'  335 
Reports  of  officers,   302,   303.  325, 

326,  335,   336 
Repose,    before    speaking,    45 ;    of 

facial  expression,  51 
Rescind,  motion  to,  320,  331,  385 
Resolutions,  sample,  338 
Response,  184 
Reviewing,  opposing  case  in  debate, 

262  ;  one's  own  case,  263 
Rights    of    members    and    officers, 

321-327 

Rise,  motion  to,  331 

Robert's  "  Rules  of  Order,"  291,  331 

Roll  call.  302,  303,  338 

Rules,  parliamentary,  use  of,  291  ; 
when  dispensed  with,  291  ;  of 
parliamentarv  society,  293  ;  sub- 
mission to.  296;  permanent,  297; 
of  order,  298,  300  ;  standing,  298, 


INDEX 


395 


301  ;  amendments  to,  301  ;  sus- 
pension of,  301,  312,  338,  385  ;  of 
debate,  322  ;  for  debating,  339 

Scale  for  marking  recitations,  388 

Scoring  in  debates,  345,  347,  354 

Second  speakers  in  debate,  282 

Seconding  a  motion,  306.  321,  385 

Secret  meeting,  331 

Secretary,  324,  336 

Selection  of  debaters,  354  ;  of  judges, 
42,  340,  355 

Senses,  aid  of,  in  description,  91 

Sentences,  variety  in,  116 

Sergeant  at  arms,  295,  326 

Session,  executive,  331  ;  and  meet- 
ing- 333 

Setting,  for  story,  80 ;  in  explana- 
tion, 145 

Sign,  argument  by,  247,  24S;  tests 
of,  249 

Sine  die,  334 

Slang,  69-72 

Speeches, forspecial  occasions,  176- 
194;  announcement,  176;  nom- 
ination, 179;  introduction  of  a 
speaker,  182 ;  presentation  and 
response,  184;  toast,  186;  ora- 
tion, 189;  eulogy,  191;  farewell, 
192;  inauguration,  192;  invitation, 
192;  rally,  192;  valedictory,  192; 
welcome,  193.  Exercises:  178, 
181,  183,  1S5,  188,  191,  193 

Standing  committees,  327 

Standing  position,  45 

Standing  rules,  298  ;  amending,  301  ; 
sample  of,  301 

Statement  of  question,  227 

Stating  motions,  306-320 

Style  in  oral  composition,  1 14-135  ; 
importance  of,  114;  awkward- 
ness in,  114;  variety  in  sentence 
structure,  116;  in  length  of  sen- 
tence, 116;  in  form  of  sentence, 
117;  concrete  examples  and  illus- 
trations, 118;  figures  of  speech, 
120;  outline  for  unity  and  cohe- 
rence in,  126,  128,  130;  used  in 
debate,  270.  Exercises:  116,  118, 
122.  130,  135 


Subjects,  for  explanations,  22,  15S; 
for  narration,  79 ;  for  business 
talks,  112;  for  reading,  195;  an- 
nouncing, 198;  for  discussions, 
205;  for  debate,  227;  analyzing, 
230  ;  for  parliamentary  class,  293, 
295;  for  debates,  357-3^8;  for 
recitations  and  motions,  375-382, 
383.  See  Propositions  for  debate, 
Questions,  Topics 

Summary,  in  debate,  39,  262,  270, 
279,  282,  283  ;  in  description,  97  ; 
in  business  talks,  iio;  in  most 
talks,  132 ;  and  appeal,  263  ;  of 
rebuttal  methods,  268 ;    on  cards, 

■  270 ;  prospective  and  retrospec- 
tive,  270 

Suspension  of  rules,  301,  312,  t^t^, 

385 
Synonyms,   63 ;    for    debating,    64 ; 

exercises  for,  68 

Tables,  use  of,  294,  304  ;  reference, 
383-3^^8 

Take  from  the  table,  313 

Teacher,  place  in  parliamentary 
class,  292,  294 ;  report  of,  303 ; 
as  judge  for  debates,  340,  342  ; 
as  teller,  346;  help  of,  in  debate, 
342,  356 

Teamwork,  in  debate,  276;  in  read- 
ing, 278  ;  in  judging  points  to  be 
refuted,  284;  cooperation  for, 
285  ;  benefits  of,  286 

Technical  descriptions,  99 

Technical  parlimentary  terms,  333 

Technical  terms  defined,  136,  155 

Tellers,  334,  346 

Time  for  next  meeting,  306,  385 

Time  limit  for  debate  speeches,  41, 
273,  276,  285,  286,  314,  330,  339, 

353 

'I'oast,  186 

'I'oastmaster,  187 

'I'ongue  and  lips,  exercises  for,  165, 
166 

Tfjpics,  classifying,  126;  expressed 
in  sentences,  127;  arrangement 
of,  129,  150;  announcing,  in 
reading,   198;    current,   201;    for 


396 


INDEX 


conversations,  216  ;  in  briefs,  254. 
See  Propositions  for  debate,  Ques- 
tions, Subjects 
Treasurer,  326 

Undebatable  motions,  306,  384,  385 
Unfinished  business.    See  Old  busi- 
ness 
Unity  in  outline,  126,  130 

Valedictory  speech,  192 

Variety,  of  speaking,  64,  116,  117, 
166;  through  speed,  167  ;  through 
loudness,  169;  through  pitch  of 
voice,  171;  in  reading,  199;  in 
methods  of  refutation,  266 

Vice  president,  324 

Vocabulary,  improving,  57-76;  in- 
creasing, 59  ;  use  for  fluency,  62  ; 
synonyms  for,  63 ;  suited  to  audi- 
ence, 66 ;  reading  and  writing  as 
aids  in  acquiring,  66  ;  use  of  books 
for,  67  ;  slang,  69  ;  correctness  of 
grammar,  72  ;  used  in  debate,  270. 
Exercises:  58,  61,  68,  71,  76 


Voice,  good  use  of,  163-175;  ease 
in  using,  163;  importance  of 
mental  attitude,  163 ;  control  of 
breath  in,  163;  tongue  and  lips 
as  aids  to,  165;  variety  and  em- 
phasis, 166;  stress,  169;  pitch, 
171;  enthusiasm  and  force,  173; 
in  debate  speech,  270.  Exercises  : 
164,  165,  168,  170,  172,  174 

Vote,  two-thirds,  334;  viva-voce,  335; 
taking  a,  335 

Voting,  methods  of,  331 

Warrant,  33  5 
Welcome,  speech  of,  193 
Withdrawal  of  a  motion,  312,  385 
Words,  defined,  57 ;    pronunciation 
of,   57 ;    adding   new,   59 ;    appro- 
priated,   60 ;     for    fluency,     63 ; 
expressive,  65 ;    descriptive,  67  ; 
opening.   So,    103,  131;  appropri- 
ate, gS 

Yeas  and  nays,  voting  by,  332 


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